Children growing up in single-parent families tend to have lower average educational attainment compared to children raised in a household with two parents.^[1] Single-parent families are more likely to be in a lower socioeconomic class than coupled-parent families.^[2] Children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds have a lack of access to resources performing lower than children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds.^[3] These children from lower income families are less likely to attend higher education.^[4]

The number of children growing up in single-parent households has risen over the last one hundred years.^[5][6] In countries like the US, UK, Sweden, and Ireland, 25% of households were single-parent households with children.^[2] The majority of single-families are headed by women, and only 12% of single-parent families were headed by men in OECD countries.^[2]

In a single-parent household where a parent has died, educational status tends to stay the same as when it was a two-parent household. In households where there is a single-parent due to divorce, there are more negative trends relating to education of children. ^[7]

In 1980, the majority of children in the United States, about 77%, lived with parents who were married.^[8] By 2019, this percentage had decreased to 63%.^[8] During this period, the number of children living in single-parent households increased, with roughly one in four being raised by a single parent, most often their mother.^[8]

The prevalence of single motherhood in the United States has increased primarily due to non-marital births rather than divorce, with the trend being more common among socioeconomically disadvantaged women. The likelihood of children living with a single mother varies by maternal education level. Among children whose mothers have a college degree, 12% reside in single-mother households, compared to 30% of children whose mothers did not complete high school and 29% of those whose mothers attended college but did not earn a degree.^[8] Racial disparities also exist in single-parent family structures. Approximately 54% of Black children live with a single mother, compared to 15% of White children.^[8] Black children whose mothers have a college degree are as likely to live with a single mother as children of other racial groups whose mothers did not complete high school.^[8]

The decline in marriages and the increase in single-parent families have been associated with greater economic instability among families in the United States. These trends have contributed to the widening disparities in opportunities and outcomes for children from differing socioeconomic backgrounds.^[8]

Single parenthood is associated with various socioeconomic disadvantages, including an elevated risk of poverty. Single parents often encounter challenges in the labor market, with gender disparities playing a significant role. Employment is a key factor in economic well-being, providing financial stability, personal identity, and opportunities for skill development. Since women head the majority of single-parent households, they are more likely to earn lower wages, have less work experience, and face restricted career advancement opportunities.^[2] Financial constraints contribute to higher rates of material deprivation among single parents compared to coupled parents.^[2] They are also more likely to face social stigma due to perceptions related to welfare dependency. Housing conditions for single parents are often characterized by smaller living spaces and a greater financial burden from housing costs.

Other socioeconomic factors such as racial group, parents' education level, and income play a role in children's academic success.^[9] The socioeconomic background of parents is seen as one of the impactful factors in children's lives and education.^[10][3] Children raised in single-parent households, on average, experience lower emotional well-being, face cognitive development challenges, and tend to perform less well academically compared to their peers from two-parent households.^[2]

Studies^{[6][11][12][7][13]} have shown that living with one parent can impact a child's education attainment. Also, that children lacking a mother figure are at greater risk academically than those lacking a father figure.^[7]

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development report in 2009 compared how reading grades from students in single-parent families (SSPF) compared with grades from students living in other families in countries throughout the world.^[11] The report found that the average reading grade was 16% lower for SSPF than other students. SSPFs in Qatar scored an average grade that was 80% lower than other students, while SSPFs in Kazakhstan scored 20% higher grades than their classmates. SSPFs in the USA performed about 45% lower than their classmates, while students in Ireland performed at about 25% lower; SSPFs in the UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand were close to the average of 16% lower.^[11]

The age of SSPFs has also been taken into consideration, with a 2019 study finding that SSPFs aged seven years or younger will have a lower education attainment than those who were raised by both parents until the age of seven. The 2009 OECD report looked at the socio-economic backgrounds of SSPFs and found 8 countries where SSPFs perform better at reading than their classmates after their backgrounds are taken into consideration.^[11] However, a 2019 report showed that changes in economic status still accounted for changes in SSPF educational attainment.^[6]

A 2015 study by Amato, Patterson, and Beattie examined the relationship between single-parent households and children’s educational achievement in the United States from 1990 to 2011. The study found no clear link between the increase in single-parent households and lower student test scores in math and reading. However, children living without either parent demonstrated a disadvantage in academic performance. Single-parent households were linked with a slight decline in the percentage of students scoring at the highest proficiency levels in mathematics. The study identified that higher maternal education levels were associated with improved academic outcomes.^[14]

Much of what children learn about in school impacts their ability to obtain information relating to their health. Skills, like evaluating internet sources, are taught in schools which cause children to engage in critical thinking and there is evidence suggesting this aids in health literacy.^[15] Education is also a notable factor in securing a sufficient enough income to obtain a level of safety and a healthier lifestyle. With an accumulation of wealth, families are more likely to spend money to improve or monitor health.^[4] In the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion's National Action Plan to Improve Health Literacy, it is recommended that parents are included in providing information on health related issues for their children alongside educators.^[15]

With educational attainment, there are also educational experiences which can be effected generationally, specifically when linked to parental socioeconomic status (SES).^[4] Children with parents in a lower SES are less likely to obtain a degree or attend an institute for higher education.

• Health Equity
• Educational inequality