List of wars involving France
This is a list of wars involving modern France from the abolition of the French monarchy and the establishment of the French First Republic on 21 September 1792 until the current Fifth Republic.
- For wars involving the Kingdom of France (987–1792), see List of wars involving the Kingdom of France.
- For pre-987 wars, see List of wars involving Francia.
- French victory France
- French defeat
- Another result *
- Ongoing conflict
*e.g. a treaty or peace without a clear result, status quo ante bellum, result of civil or internal conflict, result unknown or indecisive, inconclusive
First French Republic (1792–1804)
| Conflict | Allies | Opponents | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| French Revolution (1789–1799) Location: France |
 Kingdom of France
|
Revolutionaries | French Republican victory
|
| War of the First Coalition (1792–1797) Location: France, Central Europe, Italy, the Low Countries, Spain, West Indies |
French naval allies |
First Coalition
|
French victory; Treaty of The Hague, Treaty of Paris, Peaces of Basel, Treaty of Tolentino, Treaty of Campo Formio
|
| War in the Vendée (1793–1796) Location: West France: Maine-et-Loire, Vendée, Loire-Atlantique, Deux-Sèvres (or former provinces of Anjou, Poitou, Brittany) |
French Republican victory | ||
| War of the Pyrenees (1793-1795) Location: Pyrenees |
French victory
| ||
| Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) Location: Hispaniola  |
1791–1793
|
1791–1793
|
Haitian victory
|
| French invasion of Switzerland (1798) Location: Old Swiss Confederacy |
French victory
| ||
| War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802) Location: Italy, Switzerland, Southern Germany, Middle East, Mediterranean Sea, Caribbean Sea |
Co-belligerent: |
Second Coalition:
Co-belligerent: |
French victory
|
| Peasants' War (1798) Location: Southern Netherlands annexed by the French Republic[m] |
 French Republic
|
 Brigands
|
French Republican victory |
| Quasi-War
(1798–1800) Location: Primarily Caribbean and East Coast of the United States, minor actions in Indian Ocean, and Mediterranean Sea |
Convention of 1800 | ||
| War of the Oranges (1801) Location: Alentejo, Portugal |
Franco-Spanish victory in Europe
|
First French Empire (1804–1814, 1815)
Bourbon Restoration (1814–15, 1815–1830)
| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis (1823) Location: Spain |
|
|
Spanish and French Bourbon royalist victory
|
| Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) Location: Ottoman Greece (present-day Greece) |
In detail: Military support:
Diplomatic support: |
Supported by: |
Greek victory[ad]
|
| Franco-Trarzan War of 1825 (1825) Location: Waalo, West Africa |
French victory | ||
| Irish and German Mercenary Soldiers' Revolt (1828) Location: Rio de Janeiro, Empire of Brazil |
Revolt suppressed | ||
| July Revolution (July 1830) Location: Paris, Kingdom of France |
Supported by: |
|
Revolutionary victory
|
July Monarchy (1830–1848)
| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Liberal Wars (1828–34) Location: Portugal |
 LiberalsSupported by:
|
 MiguelitesSupported by:
|
Liberal victory |
| French conquest of Algeria (1830–1903) Location: Algeria |
Support: |
|
French victory |
| Belgian Revolution (1830–31) Location: The Low Countries |
|
Treaty of London
| |
| June Rebellion (1832) Location: Paris |
|
|
Government victory
|
| First Carlist War (1833–1840) Location: Spain |
|
Liberal victory | |
| Pastry War (1838–1839) |
French victory[23][24] | ||
| Uruguayan Civil War (1839–1851) |
|
|
Colorado victory
|
| First Franco-Moroccan War (1844) Location: Morocco |
French victory | ||
| Franco-Tahitian War (1844–1847) Location: the Society Islands |
|
French victory | |
| Bombardment of Tourane (1847) Location: Off Tourane (Da Nang), South Central Coast of Vietnam |
French victory | ||
| French Revolution of 1848 (February 1848) |
|
|
Republican victory
|
Second French Republic (1848–1852)
| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| June Days uprising (June 1848) Location: France |
Insurgents |
Second Republic victory
| |
| First Italian War of Independence (1848–1849) Location: Lombardy–Venetia and Piedmont |
(1849) | Supported by: | Austrian victory
|
| French invasion of Honolulu (1849) |
French victory |
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Second French Empire (1852–1870)
| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Soninke-Marabout War (Kombo) (1850-1856) Location: Kingdom of Kombo |
|
French victory
| |
| Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) Location: China |
|
Qing victory | |
| Bombardment of Salé (1851) |
French military victory[25] | ||
| Crimean War (1853–1856) Location: Crimea, North Caucasus, Balkans, Black Sea, Baltic Sea, White Sea, Far East |
 Russia Greece[ag]
|
Allied victory
| |
| Second Opium War (1856-1860) Location: China |
|
Allied victory (see § Aftermath)
| |
| Siege of Medina Fort (1857) |
French victory[28] | ||
| Campagne de Kabylie (1857) (1857) Location: Algeria |
 France
|
Kabylie Tribes | French Victory |
| Cochinchina Campaign (1858–1862) Location: Nam Kỳ, Đại Nam |
 Spain
Cobelligerent:
|
Franco-Spanish victory
| |
| Second Italian War of Independence (1859) Location: Lombardy–Venetia, Piedmont and the Austrian Littoral |
Franco-Sardinian victory
| ||
| Second Franco-Mexican War (1861–1867) Location: Mexico |
Mexican Republican victory | ||
| Shimonoseki Campaign (1863–1864) Location: Shimonoseki, Japan |
Allied victory | ||
| French campaign against Korea (1866) Location: Korea |
France
|
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|
French defeat
|
| Garibaldi's expedition to Rome (1867)
Location: Rome |
France Papal States
|
 Italian volunteers
|
Franco-Papal Victory |
| Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) Location: France |
France
|
 North German Confederation
|
French defeat
|
French Third Republic (1870–1940)
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Vichy France (1940–1944)
| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Franco-Thai War (1940–1941) Location: French Indochina |
Vichy France
|
 Thailand
|
Inconclusive
|
French Fourth Republic (1946–1958)
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French Fifth Republic (1958–present)
| Conflict | France & allies | France's opposition | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Basque conflict (1959–2011) Location: Greater Basque Country (Spain, France) |
Unaligned and anti-separatist paramilitary groups:
Basque National Liberation Movement:
Supported by: |
Partial victory for the Spanish and French states; political gains for Basque nationalism
| |
| Bizerte crisis (1961) |
France
|
 Tunisia
|
French victory |
| Sand War (1963–1964) |
 MoroccoSupport: France[50]
|
 AlgeriaSupport:  Egypt[51] Cuba[52]
|
Military stalemate[53]
|
| Dirty War (1974–1983) Location: Argentina |
 Argentina
Supported by: |
 ERP
|
Argentine government victory
|
| Western Sahara War (1975–1991) Location: Western Sahara |
Morocco Mauritania (1975–1979) France (1977–78) Operation Lamantin, aid from 1978)Supported by:  Saudi Arabia United States
|
 Western Sahara
|
Inconclusive
|
| Angolan Civil War (1975–2002) Location: Angola |
 UNITA FNLA (1975–1978) South Africa (1975–1991) Zaire (1975)Supported By United States (1975–1991) Morocco (1970s) China (1975) FLECMaterial support: France
|
 MPLA Cuba (1975–1991) SWAPO (1975–1991) ANC (1975–1991)Executive Outcomes (1993–1995)  FLNC (1975–2001) Namibia (2001–2002)Material support:  Soviet Union (1975–1991) Yugoslavia (1975–1991) North Korea (1980s) Brazil Mexico
|
MPLA Victory |
| Corsican conflict (1976–present) Location: Corsica |
Anti-separatist paramilitaries
Criminal groups |
|
Ongoing |
| Shaba I (1977) Location: Shaba Province, Zaire |
France Zaire Morocco Egypt BelgiumSupported by: United States China Saudi Arabia Sudan Nigeria
|
 Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (FNLC)Supported by:  Angola Soviet Union East Germany
|
Zairian victory |
| Chadian–Libyan Conflict (1978–1987) Location: Chad |
 Anti-Libyan Chadian factions
|
 Libya
|
Chadian-French victory
|
| Shaba II (1978) |
France Zaire Belgium Morocco United States Supported by China
|
Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (FNLC) Supported by Angola Cuba (alleged) Soviet Union (alleged)
|
Zairian victory |
| Rwandan Civil War (1990−1994) Location: Rwanda |
 Rwanda Zaire (1990) France
|
 Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF)
|
Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) victory |
| Gulf War (1990–1991) Location: Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and |
 Kuwait United States United Kingdom Saudi Arabia Egypt France Syria Morocco Oman Pakistan Canada United Arab Emirates Qatar Bangladesh Italy Australia Netherlands |
 Iraq
|
Coalition victory
|
| Djiboutian Civil War (1991–1994) Location: Northern Djibouti |
 Djibouti Supported by : France
|
 FRUD
|
Franco-Djiboutian victory
|
| Bosnian War (1992–1995) Location: Bosnia and Herzegovina |
 Bosnia and Herzegovina Herzeg-Bosnia CroatiaSupport:  NATO
|
 Republika Srpska Serbian Krajina Western Bosnia (from 1993)Support:  FR Yugoslavia
|
Croatian and Bosnian victory |
| Kosovo War (1998–1999) Location: Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (then part of Serbia) |
 KLA Belgium Canada Denmark France Germany Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain Turkey United Kingdom United States
|
FR Yugoslavia
|
NATO Victory |
| War in Afghanistan (2001–2014) Location: Afghanistan |
 ISAF
|
 Taliban al-Qaeda
|
Taliban victory
|
| Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present) |
Algeria Mauritania Tunisia Libya Mali Niger Chad France Turkey
|
al-Qaeda
|
Ongoing |
| First Ivorian Civil War (2002–2007) Location: Ivory Coast  |
 Ivory Coast Young Patriots of Abidjan militia Liberian mercenaries Supported by: Russia Bulgaria Belarus
|
Forces Nouvelles de Côte d'Ivoire | Victory |
| Haitian coup d'état (2004) Location: Haiti |
 National Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Haiti
|
Republic of Haiti
|
Victory |
| Chadian Civil War (2005–2010) Location: Chad |
Chad France NMRD JEM
|
Rebels Janjaweed Alleged support: Sudan (until 2010)
|
Victory |
| Somali Civil War (2009–present) Location: Somalia |
 Somalia United States European Union
|
Al-Qaeda
|
Ongoing |
| Boko Haram insurgency (2009–present) Location: Northeast Nigeria |
Nigeria Cameroon Chad Niger TurkeySupported by:  Benin Canada China France Iran Israel Italy Spain United Kingdom United States
|
Boko Haram
|
Ongoing |
| Second Ivorian Civil War (2010–2011) Location: Ivory Coast |
New Forces Liberian mercenaries RDR UNOCI France
|
Military of Ivory Coast Liberian mercenaries Young Patriots of Abidjan Ivorian Popular Front
|
Victory |
| First Libyan Civil War (2011) Location: Libya  |
NATO
|
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya:
|
Victory
|
| Northern Mali Conflict (2012–2022) Location: Northern Mali |
Government of Mali
|
 National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad(MNLA)
|
Mixed Results
|
| Central African Republic Civil War (2012–2021) Location: Central African Republic  |
 Central African Republic MINUSCA (since 2014)MISCA (2013–2014) MICOPAX (2013)
|
 FPRC UPC MPC
|
France ended support for Central African Republic in 2021.[59] |
| Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017) Location: Iraq |
 Iraq CJTF–OIR
|
 Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
|
Victory |
| Opération Chammal (2014–present)  |
France
|
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant Syria |
Ongoing
|
| Operation Aspides (19 February 2024 – present) Location: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Yemen |
|
Ongoing |
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See also
- Anglo-French Wars
- Franco-Spanish War (disambiguation)
- ISIL-related terror attacks in France
- List of battles involving France (disambiguation)
- List of wars in the Low Countries until 1560
- List of wars in the southern Low Countries (1560–1829)
- Military history of France
Notes
- ^ Including the Polish Legions formed in French-allied Italy in 1797, following the abolition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Third Partition in 1795.
- ^ The French Revolutionary Army and Dutch revolutionaries overthrew the Dutch Republic and established the Batavian Republic as a puppet state in its place.
- ^ Various conquered Italian states, including the Cisalpine Republic from 1797
- ^ Re-entered the war against Britain as an ally of France after signing the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso.
- ^ Left the war after signing the Treaty of The Hague (1795) with France.
- ^ Including the Army of Condé
- ^ Nominally the Holy Roman Empire, under Austrian rule, also encompassed many other Italian states, such as the
Duchy of Modena and the 
Duchy of Massa. Left the war after signing the Treaty of Campo Formio with France.
- ^ a b Left the war after signing the Peace of Basel with France.
- ^ Left the war after signing the Treaty of Paris with France.
- ^ Napoleon Bonaparte, who wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East, planned to ally France with Mysore[3] and even planned to defeat the British together[4] but with Napoleon and Tipu's respective defeats, this plan was no longer possible.[5]
- ^ Nominally the Holy Roman Empire, under Austrian Habsburg rule, also nominally encompassed some other Italian states abolished in 1797, as well as other Habsburg states such as the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.
- ^ An undeclared naval war between the United States and the First French Republic after Congress authorised a trade deal with Great Britain and suspended repaying French loans. Hostilities began in June 1798 and concluded in September 1800. The U.S. was never an official member of the Second Coalition.
- ^ Modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and German border lands
- ^ Some accounts mark the 1807 Franco–Spanish invasion of Portugal as the beginning of the war [14].
- ^ Denotes the date of the general armistice between France and the Sixth Coalition [15].
- ^ The Dutch Brigade
- ^ a b c d e [16] states that the contributions of coalition members aside from Austria were "rather nominal". [17] writes that "the only real coalition to be mounted in this nominal fifth war of that name was the coalition France created against unhappy Austria; it included the key German States and Italy."
- ^ in rebellion against the Confederation of the Rhine
- ^ in rebellion against Bavaria
- ^ in rebellion against France in Illyria
- ^ in rebellion against the Kingdom of Italy
- ^ The Duchy of Warsaw as a state was in effect fully occupied by Russian and Prussian forces by May 1813, although most Poles remained loyal to Napoleon.
- ^ Dissolved after the Battle of Vitoria in June 1813
- ^ Many member states defected after the Battle of Leipzig
- ^ a b c Only in 1821
- ^ a b c From 1821–1823.
- ^ From 1821.
- ^ a b c From 1826.
- ^ Haiti was the first nation to recognize the independence of Greece.
- ^ London Protocol (1830),
London Conference (1832),
Treaty of Constantinople (1832) - ^ a b From 1854
- ^ From 1855
- ^ Until 1854
- ^ Battle of Daugavpils
- ^ After 1920
- ^ a b Volunteers
- ^ [41][42][43][44][45]
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References
Citations
- ^ "Wars of the Vendee". Archived from the original on 19 January 2024.
- ^ And other supporting soldiers as the Polish Legions and some Mamluks in captivity.
- ^ Tricolor and crescent William E. Watson p.13-14
- ^ Napoleon and Persia by Iradj Amini, p. 12
- ^ Karsh, p.11
- ^ Left the war signing the treaty of Paris (August 1801).
- ^ Great Britain until 1801. Left the war signing the treaty of Amiens.
- ^ Left the war signing the Treaty of Paris (8 October 1801).
- ^ Including the Mamluks and the Barbary Coast. Left the war signing the Treaty of Paris (1802) with France.
- ^ Left the war signing the Treaty of Florence with France.
- ^ Left the war signing the Treaty of Badajoz (1801) with Spain and the Treaty of Madrid (1801) with France.
- ^ Following the refusal to enter in alliance against the Two Sicilies, France declared war on both Naples and Piedmont-Sardinia the same day, December 6. The Piedmontese Republic was proclaimed on 10 December 1798. The Sardinian king Charles Emmanuel IV fled to Cagliari.
- ^ Olesen, Jens E. (2008). "Schwedisch-Pommern in der schwedischen Politik nach 1806". In North, Michael; Riemer, Robert. Das Ende des Alten Reiches im Ostseeraum. Wahrnehmungen und Transformationen (in German). Böhlau. pp. 289. ISBN 3-412-20108-1.
- ^ Glover 2001, p. 45.
- ^ Glover 2001, p. 335.
- ^ Mikaberidze 2020, p. 309.
- ^ Englund 2004, p. 345.
- ^ Zamoyski 2004, p. 87.
- ^ a b Chandler 1981, p. 181.
- ^ Hervé de Weck: "Franche-Comté expedition" in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, 8 May 2007.
- ^ Sakalis, Alex (25 March 2021). "The Italians Who Fought for Greek Independence". Italics Magazine. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
- ^ "Belgian Corps 1832–35 in Portugal's Liberal Wars". 11 June 2006. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
- ^ https://www.britannica.com/event/Pastry-War
- ^ https://www.thoughtco.com/the-pastry-war-mexico-vs-france-2136674
- ^ a b Brown 1976, p. 239.
- ^ a b Brown 1976, p. 240.
- ^ From 1858 "Second China War | National Army Museum". www.nam.ac.uk. Retrieved 3 September 2025.
- ^ Robinson 1985, p. 210.
- ^ "The activities of the officer the Kuban Cossack army N. S. Leontjev in the Italian-Ethiopic war in 1895–1896".
- ^ Richard, Pankhurst. "Ethiopia's Historic Quest for Medicine, 6". The Pankhurst History Library. Archived from the original on 3 October 2011.
- ^ Patman 2009, pp. 27–30.
- ^ "Soviet Appeasement, Collective Security, and the Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935 and 1936". libcom.org.
- ^ Thomas Wilson, Edward (1974). Russia and Black Africa Before World War II. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–58.
- ^ Haggai, Erlich (1997). Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897. African World Press.
- ^ a b "Occupation during and after the War (Ottoman Empire) | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)". encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net.
- ^ Rettig, pp. 316–317.
- ^ Lee Lanning, Michael (2008). Inside the VC and the NVA. Texas A&M University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-60344-059-2.
- ^ Crozier, Brian (2005). Political Victory: The Elusive Prize Of Military Wars. Transaction. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-7658-0290-3.
- ^ Fall 1994, p. 63.
- ^ Logevall, Fredrik (2012). Embers of War: the fall of an empire and the making of America's Vietnam. Random House. pp. 596–599. ISBN 978-0-375-75647-4.
- ^ Alec G. Hargreaves (2005). Memory, Empire, and Postcolonialism: Legacies of French Colonialism. Lexington Books. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7391-0821-5.
The death knell of the French empire was sounded by the bitterly fought Algerian war of independence, which ended in 1962.
- ^ "The French defeat in the war effectively signaled the end of the French Empire". Jo McCormack (2010). Collective Memory: France and the Algerian War (1954–1962).
- ^ Paul Allatson; Jo McCormack (2008). Exile Cultures, Misplaced Identities. Rodopi. p. 117. ISBN 978-90-420-2406-9.
The Algerian War came to an end in 1962, and with it closed some 130 years of French colonial presence in Algeria (and North Africa). With this outcome, the French Empire, celebrated in pomp in Paris in the Exposition coloniale of 1931 ... received its decisive death blow.
- ^ Yves Beigbeder (2006). Judging War Crimes And Torture: French Justice And International Criminal Tribunals And Commissions (1940–2005). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 978-90-04-15329-5.
The independence of Algeria in 1962, after a long and bitter war, marked the end of the French Empire.
- ^ France's Colonial Legacies: Memory, Identity and Narrative. University of Wales Press. 15 October 2013. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-78316-585-8.
The difficult relationship which France has with the period of history dominated by the Algerian war has been well documented. The reluctance, which ended only in 1999, to acknowledge 'les évenements' as a war, the shame over the fate of the harki detachments, the amnesty covering many of the deeds committed during the war and the humiliation of a colonial defeat which marked the end of the French empire are just some of the reasons why France has preferred to look towards a Eurocentric future, rather than confront the painful aspects of its colonial past.
- ^ Teretta 2013, pp. 178–179.
- ^ "Cameroon - Moving toward independence | history - geography". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
- ^ "Documentos de la CIA relatan que Felipe González acordó crear los GAL". EiTB (in Spanish). 14 June 2020. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2020.
- ^ "Villarejo defiende la 'guerra sucia' contra ETA: "Me hubiera gustado participar"". www.publico.es. 21 October 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
- ^ Nicole Grimaud (1 January 1984). La politique extérieure de l'Algérie (1962-1978). KARTHALA Editions. p. 198. ISBN 978-2-86537-111-2.
L'armée française était en 1963 présente en Algérie et au Maroc. Le gouvernement français, officiellement neutre, comme le rappelle le Conseil des ministres du 25 octobre 1963, n'a pas pu empêcher que la coopération très étroite entre l'armée française et l'armée marocaine n'ait eu quelques répercussions sur le terrain. == The French Army was in 1963 present in Algeria and Morocco. The French government, officially neutral, as recalled by the Council of Ministers on October 25, 1963, could not prevent the very close cooperation between the French army and the Moroccan army from having some repercussions on the ground.
- ^ Ottaway 1970, p. 166.
- ^ Brian Latell (24 April 2012). Castro's Secrets: Cuban Intelligence, The CIA, and the Assassination of John F. Kennedy. St. Martin's Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-137-00001-9.
In this instance, unlike several others, the Cubans did no fighting; Algeria concluded an armistice with the Moroccan king.
- ^ "Within weeks the war ended in stalemate." Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1 edited by Alexander Mikaberidze Read here.
- ^ McSherry, J. Patrice (2011). "Chapter 5: "Industrial repression" and Operation Condor in Latin America". In Esparza, Marcia; Henry R. Huttenbach; Daniel Feierstein (eds.). State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical Terrorism Studies). Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 978-0415664578.
- ^ Greg Grandin (2011). The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War. University of Chicago Press. p. 75. ISBN 9780226306902
- ^ Walter L. Hixson (2009). The Myth of American Diplomacy: National Identity and U.S. Foreign Policy. Yale University Press. p. 223. ISBN 0300151314
- ^ "Pour la première fois depuis 1993, le FLNC revendique un assassinat". Le Monde.fr. 2 December 2011. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
- ^ French Soldiers Quit Mali After 9 Years, Billions Spent and Many Lives Lost
- ^ France suspends military, budgetary support to Central African Republic, 8 June 2021
Bibliography
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- Chandler, David (1981) [1980]. Waterloo: The Hundred Days. London: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-0-02-523680-6.
- Croxton, Derek (2013). The Last Christian Peace: The Congress of Westphalia as A Baroque Event. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-33332-2.
- Englund, Steven (2004). Napoleon: a Political Life. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-87142-4.
- Fall, Bernard B. (1994). Street Without Joy: The French Debacle in Indochina. Stackpole. ISBN 978-0-8117-1700-7 – via Google Books.
- Kendall, Paul Murray (1974). Louis XI. Cardinal.
- Glover, Michael (2001) [1974]. The Peninsular War 1807–1814: A Concise Military History. Penguin Classic Military History. ISBN 978-0-14-139041-3.
- Mikaberidze, Alexander (2020). The Napoleonic Wars: A Global History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-995106-2.
- Ottaway, David (1970). Algeria: The Politics of a Socialist Revolution. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520016552.
- Patman, Robert G. (2009). The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The Diplomacy of Intervention and Disengagement. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-10251-3.
- Robinson, David (1985). The Holy War of Umar Tal: The Western Sudan in the mid-Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822720-5.
- Saenger, Paul (Spring 1977). "Burgundy and the Inalienability of Appanages in the Reign of Louis XI". French Historical Studies. 10 (1): 1–26. doi:10.2307/286114. JSTOR 286114.
- Teretta, Meredith (2013). Nation of Outlaws, State of Violence: Nationalism, Grassfields Tradition, and State Building in Cameroon. Athens: Ohio University Press. ISBN 9780821444726.
- Zamoyski, Adam (2004). Moscow 1812: Napoleon's Fatal March. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-712375-9.