Kingdom of Eastern Georgia

Kingdom of Eastern Georgia
1256–1329
Flag of Kingdom of Eastern Georgia
Flag of Georgia in the 14th centuries[1]
Map of fragmented Kingdom of Georgia in 1311, with the Western Kingdom of Georgia in purple, and the Eastern Kingdom of Georgia in grey
Map of fragmented Kingdom of Georgia in 1311, with the Western Kingdom of Georgia in purple, and the Eastern Kingdom of Georgia in grey
CapitalTbilisi
Common languagesMiddle Georgian
Religion
Eastern Orthodox Christianity (Georgian Patriarchate)
GovernmentFeudal monarchy, Il-Khanid administrative regions Tumans.[2]
• 1247–1270
David VII
• 1270–1289
Demetrius II
• 1289–1292
Vakhtang II
• 1292–1302
David VIII
• 1302–1308
Vakhtang III
• 1308–1311
David VIII
• 1311–1313
George VI
• 1314–1346
George V
Historical eraLate Middle Ages
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Kingdom of Georgia
Kingdom of Georgia

The Kingdom of Eastern Georgia[3][4] (Georgian: აღმოსავლეთ საქართველოს სამეფო, romanized: aghmosavlet sakartvelos samepo) was the official prolongation of the Kingdom of Georgia from 1256 to 1329. Its rule was limited to the geographical areas of central and eastern Georgia, while the western part of the country temporarily seceded to form the Kingdom of Western Georgia under its own line of kings, and the southern regions of Samtskhe-Saatabago and Zakarid Armenia fell under direct Il-Khanid suzerainty. The secession of Western Georgia followed a transitional period when the rule of the Kingdom of Georgia was jointly assumed by the cousins David VI and David VII from 1246 to 1256. The entity split into two parts when David VI, revolting from the Mongol hegemony, seceded in the western half of the kingdom and formed the Kingdom of Western Georgia in 1256. David VII was relegated to the rule of Eastern Georgia. During his reign, Eastern Georgia went into further decline under the Mongol overlordship.

Mongol conquest

Main article: Mongol invasions of Georgia

Since the 1220s, the Kingdom of Georgia had to contend with the numerous Mongol invasions of Genghis Khan and his successors, the Ilkhanids.[5]

The Mongol commander Chormaqan led, in 1236, a large army against Georgia and its vassal Armenian princedoms. Most of the Georgian and Armenian nobles, who held military posts along the frontier regions, submitted without any serious opposition or confined their resistance to their castles while others preferred to flee to safer areas. Their submission required performing military service for the Mongols.[6] Queen Rusudan had to evacuate Tbilisi for Kutaisi and some people went into the mountainous part of Georgia, leaving eastern Georgia (non-mountain part) in the hands of Atabeg Avag Mkhargrdzeli and Egarslan Bakurtsikheli, who made peace with the Mongols and agreed to pay them tribute.[6] The only Georgian great noble to have resisted was Ivane I Jaqeli, prince of Samtskhe. His extensive possessions were fearfully devastated, and finally Ivane had to, with the consent of Queen Rusudan, submit to the invaders in 1238. In 1239, Chormaqan conquered Ani and Kars in Greater Armenia.[6] The Mongol armies chose not to cross the Likhi Range in pursuit of the Georgian queen, leaving western Georgia relatively spared of the rampages. The country was forced to pay an annual tribute of 50,000 gold pieces and support the Mongols with an army.

Following a disastrous campaign, the Kingdom of Georgia recognized defeat against the Mongols and had to accept submission through the 1239 treaty.

Between 1236 and 1256, before the creation of the Il-Khanate, Caucasia was placed under the military governorship of Chormaqan, and divided into 5 vilayets (provinces): Georgia (Gurjistan), Greater Armenia, Shirvan, Arran, and Mughan, with Armenian principalities becoming fragmented and essentially independent. Georgia was partitioned into 8 Mongol tümen, with each tümen ordered to supply 10,000 soldiers.[7] After 1256, Armenia was directly incorporated into the Il-Khanate founded by Hulegu.[8][9]

Joint rule (1246–1256)

See also: Georgian Rebellion of 1256

In 1246, the Mongol Empire confirmed the cousins David VII and David VI as joint kings of King of Georgia by the Mongol Empire, effectively laying ground for a division of the Georgian kingdom.

The "two Davids", as incumbents for the throne of Georgia, David VI and David VII, attended the enthronement ceremony of the Mongol Khan Güyük on 24 August 1246, near the Mongol capital at Karakorum, together with a large number of foreign ambassadors: the Franciscan friar and envoy of Pope Innocent IV, John of Plano Carpini and Benedict of Poland; Grand Duke Yaroslav II of Vladimir; the brother of the king of Armenia and historian, Sempad the Constable; the future Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kilij Arslan IV; and ambassadors of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim and Ala ud din Masud of the Delhi Sultanate.[10] all bearing homage, tribute, and presents. This event was related by the 13th century historian Juvayni:

Mural of King David VII Ulugh, first ruler of Eastern Georgia

From Khitai there came emirs and officials; and from Transoxiana and Turkestan the emir Masʿud accompanied by grandees of that region. With the emir Arghun there came the celebrities and notables of Khorasan, Iraq, Lur, Azerbaijan and Shirvan. From Rum came Sultan Rukn al-Din and the Sultan of Takavor (Trebizond); from Georgia, the two Davits; from Aleppo, the brother of the Lord of Aleppo; from Mosul, the envoy of Sultan Badr al-Din Luʾluʾ; and from the city of Peace, Baghdad, the chief qadi Fakhr al-Din. There also came the Sultan of Erzurum, envoys from the Franks, and from Kerman and Fars also; and from ʿAla al-Din of Alamut, his governors in Quhistan, Shihab al-Din and Shams al-Din. And all this great assembly came with such baggage as befitted a court; and there came also from other directions so many envoys and messengers that two thousand felt tents had been made ready for them: there came also merchants with the rare and precious things that are produced in the East and the West.

— Juvayni, 1: 249–50.[11]

The Mongols appointed David VII as ulu ("senior") ruler, while David VI was appointed narin (junior) ruler.[12] The Mongols required the Georgians to provide 90,000 soldiers (calculated at 1/9th of the population), and the agriculture and economy were taxed.[12] They reigned jointly throughout the country for almost a decade under Mongol control. However, the Mongol overlords began to impose heavy taxes on the inhabitants of the Caucasus, leading to numerous popular revolts, particularly in Shirvan.[13]

Tiflis coinage in the name of David VII citing Möngke as overlord: "King David, servant of the Khan, the Master of the World".[14] Persian, dated 1253.[15][16]

In 1259, David VI, who was nicknamed Narin (meaning "junior" in Mongolian) by the Ilkhanid authorities, rebelled against his Mongol suzerain, although he did not drag his royal colleague into the rebellion.[13] The Ilkhanate soon put an end to this revolt after a few short, bloody battles, while David VI managed to take refuge in western Georgia on a secret journey that took him through Armenia.[17] Arriving in Kutaisi, one of the largest towns in western Georgia, he declared the secession of the domains west of the Likhi mountains, and was proclaimed King of the Kingdom of Western Georgia by the local nobility.[13]

Western Georgia then became an independent kingdom, wishing to preserve Georgian culture outside the sphere of influence of the Mongol world. The Ilkhanate was preoccupied with its military campaign in Syria against certain Crusader states and Mamluk Sultanate[18] and was content to increase the tributes imposed on eastern Georgia to rectify the difference in revenue following the loss of a large portion of the taxes from some of the richest Georgian provinces.[19]

Secession (1256–1329)

Georgia and Zakarid Armenia   as part of the Mongol Il-Khanate (dotted line), after 1256.[8]
Khutlubuga was Commander-in-Chief of the Georgian Army (Amirspasalar) for Demetrius II. Church of the Holy Sign. Haghpat Monastery, southern wall. Late 13th century.[20]
Soldiers in uniform, Kobayr Monastery, 1270s

The Kingdom of Eastern Georgia was under the direct authority of the Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan (r 1256–1265), founder of the Ilkhanate, and was considered as a vassal of the Īlkhānid state.[3][21] The Mongols also took direct control of the Samtskhe region in southwestern Georgia, as an autonomous principality under Il-khanate rule.[2][22]

The successive kings of Eastern Georgia from 1256 to 1329 were David VII, Demetrius II, David VIII, Vakhtang III and George V.

At times, Georgia became a battleground between rival Mongol authorities, and in 1265, Berke Khan, the ruler of the Golden Horde, ravaged Eastern Georgia from the north.[23]

Mongol control

The Mongol maintained control over the Eastern Georgian territory, by maintaining the original kingship within the original Bagratid family, while appointing their own supporters for the offices of the Atabeg (Governor General) and the Amirspasalar (Commander-in-Chief) of the army, as seen with the appointments of Sadun Artsruni (r.1272–1282) or his son Khutlubuga (r.1270–1293).[24][25] Throughout the 13th century, the high offices Atabeg (Governor General) and Amirspasalar (Commander-in-Chief of the Georgian army) had been held by the Zakarids, but following the Mongol takeover of Eastern Georgia, the Mongol victors gave these offices to the "renegade" Sadun of Mankaberd in 1272.[26] When Abaqa became the new Mongol ruler, Sadun received from him the title of Atabeg Amirspasalar for the Georgian Bagratid Kingdom.[27] He was said to be close to the Mongols, and had been promoted by them: "Sadun Artsruni was appointed as atabeg of Georgia by Abaqa Khan".[27][28] In his position, he especially controlled the policies of Eastern Georgia, which, while being ruled by Demetre II, remained pro-Mongol throughout.[28][24][29]

The Mongols of the Il-Khanate also had a Military Governor or "Viceroy" of Georgia in place, such as Alinaq Noyan (–1289)[30] and his successor Qurumushi (1289–1318).[31]

Military operations

The Eastern Georgians provided substantial military support to the Mongols: they supported the Siege of Baghdad in 1258, and the Mongol campaigns in Syria from 1259 into the 1260s, leading to thousands of casualties.[2] Sadun Artsruni, future Atabeg for Eastern Georgia, is known to have accompanied Hulegu in his military campaigns in Syria in 1259, in the conquest of Sasun, and in the Siege of Aleppo (1260).[32] But when in 1260 Hulegu Khan requested the presence of Georgians and Armenians for the Mongol invasions of the Levant, remembering the losses of his troops in the 1258 Siege of Baghdad, David Ulu rebelled.[33] A large Mongol army led by General Arghun Aqa invaded Georgia from the south, inflicted a heavy defeat on David and Sargis I Jaqeli in a battle near Akhaldaba, and then brutally plundered the country. The Mongol campaign continued during the winter, and the following year the king was forced to flee to Imereti, which the Mongols failed to conquer.[34] David's family was captured, and his wife Gvantsa was killed.[35] Peace with the Mongols was achieved in 1262, when David Ulu returned to Tbilisi to reclaim his crown as a Mongol vassal, pledging allegiance to Hulegu, while David Narin only nominally recognized Mongol rule in Imereti. The reason for Hulegu's tolerance towards the rebel lies in the fact that since 1261, the Il-kan was at war with the Golden Horde, which was on a larger scale.[34]

The territory of the Caucasus, and as part of it the Kingdom of Georgia itself, became the scene of war between Hulegu and the Khan of the Golden Horde Berke in the following years. David Ulu provided his support for the conflict between the Il-Khanate and the Golden Horde in 1263–1265.[34] In 1263, King David's troops participated in the defense of the Siba fortress against the Golden Horde. In 1265, his troops, as the vanguard of the Ilkhanate army, defeated Berke and pushed his troops out of Shirvan. As Hulegu died in the same year, Berke began to prepare a major offensive. The following year, his army penetrated into Georgia, but the offensive was abruptly stopped due to the death of the khan in the vicinity of Tbilisi.

In 1270, David Ulu led Georgian and Armenian troops in support of the Mongol Abaqa against Tekuder, who had found refuge in Western Georgia.[36]

Demetrius II participated to all Mongol campaigns from 1275 to 1281.[35] In 1277, 3000 Georgians founght with the Mongols against the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt in the battle of Abulistan.[37] Georgian troops were present in great number at the Second Battle of Homs (1281).[35][37]

In 1284, Georgian and Armenian troops had to participate in the dynastic conflict between the Il-Khanate ruler Tekuder and Arghun, with troops under the Vicery of Georgia Alinaq Noyan and under Tekuder himself.

The relationship was tumultuous: in 1289, King Demetrius II was executed by the Mongols, at the instigation of Khutlubuga.[2] His son, the future David VIII, had to participate in the Mongol invasion of Anatolia in 1291–1292.[34]

Religious revolts

The Mongol Emir Nawrūz, son of Arghun Aqa, started to implement anti-Christian policies, in relation with the adoption of Islam by his ruler Ghazan.[38] Suddenly, Christians and Jew were segregated against, and had to wear distinctive types of dresses.[38] Churches were being destroyed throughout the Middle-East, but also in Georgia, at Siwnik‘, Somkhit and Kartli.[38] These events provoked popular rebellions and threat of military uprisings against the Mongols.[38] Because of this, Nawrūz was replaced by Qutlughshāh on the orders of Ghazan.[38] Nawrūz then plotted against Ghazan, but was denounced with the help of the Armenian Princes Eachi Pŕoshian and Liparit Orbelian, and was finally executed.[38]

A unified Georgia was reestablished by George V of Georgia in 1329, as he reasserted royal control over the western part of Georgia through the astute usage of Mongol forces, and ultimately managed to expel the Mongols from Georgian lands.[23][2] This coincided with a weakening of the Ilkhanate, which was engulfed in civil war in 1335–1344.[2] Georgia would again suffer invasion at the hands of Timurlane from 1386 onward.[2]

Art

Khutlubuga was a patron for the murals at the Church of the Holy Sign, in the Haghpat Monastery, probably during his time as Amirspasalar in the 1280s. He appears in person, with the inscription of his name. He wear a wrap-around caftan with decorative inserts, and has a low triangular headgear.[39] This is a very useful marker for the clothing styles and for the dating of works of art of the period.[39] They are contemporary with the murals at Kobayr by the family of the Zakarids, nominal vassals of the Georgian crown.[39]

Il-Khanid dismemberment

Kingdom of Georgia under Mongol rule. The Jaqelis and Zakarids were under direct Il-khanid suzerainty. Western Georgia was independent.[41]

Following the Mongol invasions of Georgia in 1236, Georgia and the Zakarid principality were organized into a province broken down into 8 administrative units (tumans). 5 of the tumans were Georgian while the remaining 3, composed of the Zakarid principality in Kars and Ani, as well as, the Awagids in Syunik and Artsakh, were Armenian.[42]

House of Jaqeli

A group portrait of Princes Jaqeli (from left to right: Sargis I Jaqeli (Sabas), Beka, Sargis, and Kvarkvare). Sapara monastery, 14th c

The Georgian House of Jaqeli in Samtskhe-Saatabago emerged when Ivane-Qvarqvare of Tsikhisjvari (fl. c. 1195-1247) was enfeoffed by Queen Tamar with Botso's titles and possessions. It attained, in the person of Sargis I (r. c. 1260-1285), to the hereditary principate of Samtskhe. The House of Jaqeli became de facto independent of the kings of Georgia under the protectorate of Mongol Ilkhanate in 1268. Relations with the Georgian crown were still maintained, with rulers such as Beka I Jaqeli (c. 1240–1306) receiving the title of Mandaturukhutsesi (Mandator) by Georgian kings.[43]

Beka I Jaqeli was a vassal of the Ilkhanate, paid regular tributes and participated in their campaigns.[43] Paintings of the House of Jaqeli during the period show them wearing the caftan with tiraz bands on the sleeves inscribed with Kufic letters.[44] Their caftan is decorated with the cloud collars made of pearl embroidery, a design of Mongol Ilkhanate origin.[45] This is also the costume worn at the time by the courtiers at the Mongol court in Tabriz.[46]

Zakarid Armenia

Armenian Prince Eacch'i Proshian wearing a Mongol-style dress (cloud collar and Mongol hat) in c. 1300,[47][48] and his son Amir Hasan II hunting on horseback in Mongol attire (1321).[49]
Main article: Zakarid Armenia

The Zakarids were originally vassals to the Bagrationi dynasty of the Kingdom of Georgia, but frequently acted independently[50] In 1236, they fell under the rule of the Mongol Empire as a vassal state with local autonomy.

From 1236 to 1246, the Mongols did not interfere with the governing structure of the Zakarid state and appointed the Zakarids as heads of the tumans.[42] While Zakarid Armenia was a vassal state of the Mongols and therefore subject to taxes and loyalty to the Khan, they were otherwise left to govern themselves and had relative autonomy during this period.[51]

The Armenians had to participate to most of the campaigns of the Mongols. They participated to the Siege of Baghdad in 1258. In 1259–1260, Shahnshah Zakarian participated to the Mongold-led Siege of Mayyāfāriqīn, together with the Armenian Prince Prosh Khaghbakian.[52] The reduced Kingdom of Georgia (1256–1329) also under Mongol control, participated to most of these campaigns as well.[34] In 1265, Armenian and Georgian troops participated to the conflict between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate, ultimately defeating Berke in Shirvan.[53]

In 1284, Georgian and Armenian troops had to participate in the dynastic conflict between the Il-Khanate ruler Tekuder and Arghun, with troops under the Vicery of Georgia Alinaq Noyan and under Tekuder himself.[54]

Final Mongol period (1329-1386)

Coinage and Mongol control

Coin of Abu Sa'id Bahadur, minted in Tiflis (Tbilisi) in 1334–1335

George V of Georgia (ruled 1299-1302, and again 1318-1346) is widely credited with restoring Georgian independence from the Mongols, but according to the numismatic evidence however, he may not have been that successful. Standard Il-Khanid coins continued to be minted in Tiflis until the 1350s, and no coins in the name of George V are known, suggesting continued effective control by the Mongols throughout the period.[55][56] Only a few dubious examples, claimed by D. Kapanadze to belong to George V, were discovered in a 14th century hoard.[56]

During the reign of George V, including during the second part of his reign (1327–46), the Georgians had little control of the coinage being issued in Tiflis and Kakheti.[57] During this period, the main coinage of Georgian mints remained that of the Mongol Ilkhanate, mainly dirhams.[57]

Division of Anūshīrwān’s domains among the Chopanids, including eastern Georgia, according to the agreement of 745 (1344–5).[58]

Even after the death of the last Ilkhanid Emperor Abu Sa'id in 1335, when several Mongol clans vied for power and installed puppet rulers, the coinage minted in Eastern Georgia was still that of these Mongol puppet rulers.[59] The Il-Khanid mints at Tiflis and at Qara-Aghach in Kakhet'i continued to function in an uninterrupted manner, although the Georgian chronicle remain quite about this period.[60]

In Tbilisi, the following coins of Il-Khanate successors were minted: Abu Said's successor Arpa Khan (A.H. 736=1335/36), the Jalayirid Muhammad Khan (A.H. 738=1337/38), and, following the Chobanid conquest of Azerbaijan and Georgia in 1338,[61] the successive Mongol Chobanid rulers Sati Beg Khatun (A.H. 739=1338/39), Suleyman Khan (A.H. 740=1339/40; A.H. 741=1340/41; A.H. 743=1342/43), and Anushirwan (A.H. 745=1344/45; A.H. 748=1347/48; A.H. 750–756=1349–1354).[59] The last Il-Khanid ruler Ghazan II (1356–57) also minted coins in Tiflis.[62]

Silver coin minted in Tiflis (Tbilisi) bearing the name of Mongol ruler Anushirwan (1344–1357). Struck between 1344 and 1353 during the rules of George V and his successor David IX.
Territory of Ghazan II in 1357

If George V had achieved true independence from the Mongol, he would certainly not have minted their coinage.[63] This indicates that Tiflis and eastern Georgia remained strictly under the control of the Ilkhanate during the mid-14th century.[63]

Even the successors of Georges V have no known coinage, neither David IX (ruled 1346–1360) nor Bagrat V (1360–93), mainly owing to the successive "Tatar invasions".[64] The Chobanids were overrun by the forces of the Golden Horde under Jani Beg in 1356-57. Jani Beg occupied the Georgian capital of Tiflis in 1356, and issued his own coinage there, followed by the coinage of his son Berdi Beg Juchid.[62][65] Then the Chobanid ruler Malek Asraf was executed and Azerbaijan was conquered by the Jalayirids. Following Jani Beg's withdrawal, as well as his son Berdi Beg’s similar abandonment of the region in 1358, the area became a prime target for its neighbors, especially the Turco-Mongol Jalayirids. Shaykh Uways Jalayir, who at first had recognized the sovereignty of the Blue Horde, decided to take the former Chobanid lands for himself, even as a former amir of Malek Asraf’s named Akhichuq attempted to keep the region in Mongol hands. The Jalayirids occupied Tiflis in 1357-1358, where they also minted their own coinage in the name of Shaykh Uways Jalayir.[65][66]

Art

A few Georgian Gospels are known from the period, such as Manuscript H-1665 (1350-1400).[67] Some of the weapons described in miniatures appear to reflect Mongol influences, such as Mongolian-type composite bows with a middle plate seam and a massive insert at the ends.[68]

  • Georgian Gospel MS H-1665 (1350-1400).[69]
    Georgian Gospel MS H-1665 (1350-1400).[69]
  • Georgian fighter shooting a composite bow. H1665, p. 199v. National Manuscript Center.[68]
    Georgian fighter shooting a composite bow. H1665, p. 199v. National Manuscript Center.[68]
  • David meeting with Jonathan, with Mongol-style quiver and bowcase. H1665, 83. 182v. National Manuscript Center.[68]
    David meeting with Jonathan, with Mongol-style quiver and bowcase. H1665, 83. 182v. National Manuscript Center.[68]

Timurid Turco-Mongol control (1386-1412)

Emir Timur's army attacks the survivors of the town of Nerges, in Georgia, in the spring of 1396. Garrett Zafarnama (c. 1480)
Main article: Timurid invasions of Georgia

Between 1386 and 1404, the Turco-Mongol forces of Timur raided the countries of Transcaucasia from their bases in northern Iran, while also fighting the Tokhtamysh–Timur war with the Golden Horde. Tiflis was finally conquered by Timur in 1404, and King George VII was forced to recognize Timurid suzerainty. Armenia too, which had been under Mongol Jalayirid control, was incorporated into the Timurid realm.[70] Of the surviving population, more than 60,000 of the local people were captured as slaves, and many districts were depopulated.[71]

Following the death of Timur, Tumurid power in the Caucasus deteriorated, and by the early 1410s, King Alexander I of Georgia (r. 1412–1442) was reasserting independence. But the Turkic Kara Koyunlu gained control of Armenian territory and made Ani their capital circa 1406 before transferring it to Yerevan. The Kara Koyunlu started the Turkoman invasions of Georgia (1407–1502), such as the raids led by Qara Yusuf in Akhaltsikhe in 1416, followed by the offensives of the Aq Qoyunlu, with the sack of Tbilissi in 1440, ultimately participating to the Collapse of the Georgian realm.[72]

Georgia would again be threatened with the rise of the Safavid Empire in 1501, and especially Tahmasp I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns in 1541–1566.

References

  1. ^ Georgia: Historical flags, 5th-18th centuries
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Mikaberidze, Alexander (6 February 2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.
  3. ^ a b Minassian, Gaïdz (14 May 2020). The Armenian Experience: From Ancient Times to Independence. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-78672-561-5. Armenia, Azerbaijan and the kingdom of eastern Georgia were under the direct authority of Hulagu Khan (r 1256–1265), the founder of the Ilkhanate dynasty.
  4. ^ Korobeinikov, Dimitri (25 September 2014). Byzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century. Oxford Academic. p. 209. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198708261.003.0006. As Bryer has demonstrated, in the 1270s Michael VIII Palaiologos was in alliance with the Īlkhānid state, the Western Georgian kingdom and, from time to time, with the Papacy against Charles of Anjou and his allies (the Mamluk Sultanate, the Empire of Trebizond, and the Kingdom of Eastern Georgia).
  5. ^ Rayfield 2012, pp. 122–134.
  6. ^ a b c Pubblici, Lorenzo (2021). Mongol Caucasia. Invasions, conquest, and government of a frontier region in thirteenth-century Eurasia (1204-1295). Brill. p. 144. ISBN 978-90-04-50355-7. In 1236 the Mongols decided to go up towards the Caucasus, and for the Georgian kingdom, it was the end. Queen Rasudan, the successor of Tamar (r. 1223–1245), was forced to abandon Tbilisi and take refuge in Kutaisi, in the plain overlooking the Black Sea. The Georgian aristocracy was placed under Mongol protection and forced to perform military service in exchange for their lives.
  7. ^ Biran, Michal; Kim, Hodong (31 July 2023). The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire 2 Volumes. Cambridge University Press. p. 714. ISBN 978-1-009-30197-8. In the period that preceded the creation of the Ilkhanate, i.e., 1236–1256, Subcaucasia was put under the control of a military governor, the first of which was Chormaqan. The Mongols organized Caucasia into five vilayets (provinces): Georgia (Gurjistan), Greater Armenia, Shirvan, Arran, and Mughan. Georgia was divided into eight tümen. Greater Armenia was composed of "quasi-independent" Armenian principalities, and included the territories of Sasun and Vaspurakan, with Karin/Erzurum at the center.
  8. ^ a b Stopka, Krzysztof; Bałuk-Ulewiczowa, Teresa (2017). Armenia Christiana: Armenian religious identity and the Churches of Constantinople and Rome (4th-15th century) (PDF) (First ed.). Kraków: Jagiellonian University Press. ISBN 978-83-233-4190-1. In 1256 a fifth Mongol ulus was created, with the ilkhan Hulagu, the Great Khan's brother, as its governor. His task was to develop the Mongol Empire in the Near East. The historical territories of Armenia became part of the Ilkhanate of Persia.
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  13. ^ a b c Rayfield 2012, p. 131.
  14. ^ Translation of coin legend by Victor Langlois
  15. ^ "The Tiflis Dirhams of Möngke Khān". American Numismatic Society.
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  21. ^ Korobeinikov, Dimitri (25 September 2014). Byzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century. Oxford Academic. p. 209. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198708261.003.0006. In the winter of 1305/6 another Byzantine embassy was sent to Georgia in order to negotiate a symmachia (συμμαχία), i.e. a military alliance. These negotiations (which Byzantium most probably conducted with the Eastern Georgian kingdom, the vassal of the Īlkhānid state) ended in failure, but at this time Andronikos II decided to oer Öljeitü a matrimonial alliance (κῆδος). The emperor even ordered the despoina Maria, Abaqa's widow, to move to Nicaea with all her court, as her assistance might be useful when he was concluding the new Byzantine–Īlkhānid treaty.
  22. ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2007). Historical dictionary of Georgia. Lanham, Md. : Scarecrow Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-8108-5580-9.
  23. ^ a b Mikaberidze, Alexander (6 February 2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.
  24. ^ a b Kitagawa, pp. 135–136.
  25. ^ Dashdondog 2020.
  26. ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (6 February 2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.
  27. ^ a b Dashdondog 2011, p. 166 "Sadun Artsruni was appointed as atabeg of Georgia by Abaqa Khan."
  28. ^ a b Evaniseli, Gvantsa (8 December 2023). "Reflection of one episode of Georgian history in the 14th century Syrian chronicle – "History of Mar Yahbalaha and Bar Sauma"". აღმოსავლეთმცოდნეობის მაცნე. 6 (2): 106. doi:10.61671/hos.6.2023.7355. At that time, Demetre II reigned in Eastern Georgia, whose policy was governed by Sadun of Mankaberd, who was close to the Mongols, until his death. Since the latter was promoted by the Ilkhan Khans, it should not be in his interest to go against them. Moreover, during this period, Eastern Georgia's opposition against the Mongols is not visible neither in the Georgian original sources nor anywhere else.
  29. ^ Dashdondog 2011.
  30. ^ Hope, Michael (22 September 2016). Power, Politics, and Tradition in the Mongol Empire and the Īlkhānate of Iran. Oxford University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-19-108107-1. Alinaq Noyan, the commander of Georgia
  31. ^ Lang, D. M. (1955). "Georgia in the Reign of Giorgi the Brilliant (1314-1346)". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 17 (1): 80. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00106354. ISSN 0041-977X. JSTOR 609230. It will also be recalled that al-'Umari says that Chupan counted on King Giorgi as 'a remover of any unpleasantness'. As an example of this we may cite Giorgi's active role in the suppression of the revolt of the Amir Qurmishi, who was military governor in Georgia. In 1319 this personage tried to take advantage of Chupan's many commitments in order to secede from the Il-Khanian empire. King Giorgi, however, refused to countenance this and helped to crush Qurmishi. The situation was soon brought under control.
  32. ^ Kitagawa, p. 135.
  33. ^ Bai︠a︡rsaĭkhan 2011, p. 137 "Hűlegű demanded that the Georgian King David Ulu support his conquest of Syria and Egypt. Surprisingly, David refused. One might have expected that the Georgian king would have been more than interested in liberating the Holy Land. However, David was not only disinterested in this venture, but also bold enough to refuse Hűlegű’s order. In addition, he sought a revolt, which was suppressed by Arghun Aqa in Southern Georgia in 1260. David Ulu ’s refusal to participate in the Mongol campaign in Syria can be explained by his huge loss of men in the battle for Baghdad."
  34. ^ a b c d e Mikaberidze, Alexander (6 February 2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 255. ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.
  35. ^ a b c Mikaberidze, Alexander (6 February 2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 260. ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.
  36. ^ Biran, Michal; Kim, Hodong (31 July 2023). The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire 2 Volumes. Cambridge University Press. p. 721. ISBN 978-1-009-30197-8. The only non-Toluid army in Iran was at this time under the command of the Chaghadaid prince Tegüder, who had accompanied Hülegü to Iran and received an appanage in Georgia. After Hülegü's death, Tegüder joined the Chaghadaid cause. Trying to join Baraq via Derbend, Tegüder asked to return to his Georgian appanage. King David V refused and Tegüder remained stuck there. David Narin sheltered him in Imereti, but his behavior in Georgia – pillaging villages and caravans and insulting the clergy – provoked the rage of the local population, who urged Abaqa to summon him back. When Tegüder refused (or because he had found out about his plans) Abaqa attacked him, defeating him in 1270, with the help of the Georgian and Armenian troops headed by King David V.
  37. ^ a b Biran, Michal; Kim, Hodong (31 July 2023). The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire 2 Volumes. Cambridge University Press. pp. 721–722. ISBN 978-1-009-30197-8. In 1277, 3,000 Georgians participated in the battle of Abulistan, where the Mamluk army defeated the Mongols.
  38. ^ a b c d e f Dashdondog 2011, p. 197 The person who assisted in enthroning Ghazan Khan and thus exercised power was chief amir Nawruz (Naurūz), a son of Arghun Aqa from the Oirat tribe. Nawruz was known in Greater Armenia and in the region for his hostility towards the Christians. It was he who issued instructions that the Christians and Jews had to wear distinctive dress, such as a girdle around the loins for the Christians and a mark on their heads for the Jews. His policy of pursuing the Caucasian Christians and his destruction of the churches in Baghdad, Mosul, Hama, Tabriz, Maragha, Nakhichevan, Siwnik‘, Somkhit, Kartli and a few other places in Georgia provoked riots and rebellion against the Mongols among the Georgian nobles in the 1290s. Thus in Nakhichevan, the Mongol governors were under threat from sudden raids by Georgio-Armenian forces who were displeased with the religious enmity of Nawruz. Later, Ghazan Khan expelled Nawruz to Khurasan and sent amir Qutlughshāh to restore peace with the Armenians and the Georgian King David VIII (r. 1293–1311), the cousin of Vakhtang II (r. 1289–1292). When Nawruz plotted against Ghazan, however, according to the Armenian source, his plot was revealed, with the help of the Armenian princes Liparit Orbelian and Eachi Pŕoshian, and Nawruz and all his family were executed.
  39. ^ a b c статей, Сборник (15 May 2022). Актуальные проблемы теории и истории искусства. Выпуск 11 (in Russian). Litres. p. 264. ISBN 978-5-04-438990-8.
  40. ^ Дрампян, Ирина Рубеновна (1979). Фрески Кобайра (in Armenian). Советакан грох. p. 20. The frescoes of the Kobayr monastery (...) The frescoes of Kobayr refer to the second, i. e. to the Zakarian period. There has been a period when most of the structures of the monastery were covered with paintings. Now if we don't count the traces of painting on the other structures, only two monuments have preserved part of their decoration; and those are the Big Church and the Aisle adjoining it from the north. Thanks to the inscription referring to the construction of the building, we are informed of the date, which is the year 1282, and also the name of the donor, the monk George who was the son of Shahnshah, of the Zakarian family. Though we don't have documental informations concerning the paintings of the Aisle, the portraits of the donators whom we consider to be Shahnshah and his wife allow us to look upon the painting as one close to the date of the Big Church; the likeness in the artistic style confirms this suggestion. - From all the wall paintings of the Big Church only that of the altar has been preserved. As for the Aisle, here we can see not only the altar painting, but also remains of frescoes on the northern and western walls. The iconography of the altar paintings of the Big Church and the Aisle, on the whole, can be traced back to the Byzantine system of decoration. Having been already formed in the XI c., it has also some local peculiarities, the sources of which go back to the Armenian monumental art of earlier ages, beginning from the VII c. The set-up of both altar paintings are similar: the Church Fathers are in the lower rank, the Eucharist is in the middle. The difference lies in the upper circle, in the concha...
  41. ^ Based on map between pages 570-571 in Kartlis Tskhovreba. Tbilisi: Meridiani, Artanuji. 2008. ISBN 978-9941-10-086-4.
  42. ^ a b Dashdondog 2010, p. 102.
  43. ^ a b Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia, Volume 2, page 345-346, Tbilisi, 1977
  44. ^ Eastmond, Antony (1 January 2021). Monumental Painting and the Role of Images in Armenia under the Mongols. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 46.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  45. ^ Вулета), Tatjana Vuleta (Татјана (1 January 2014). "The Cloud Collars from Lesnovo". Patrimonium.MK 12: 181 and Fig.23. the cloud collars decorated with pearl embroidery on the portraits of the Georgian princely family Djakeli from St. Saba in Sapara Monastery, 1285–1306. (fig.23), of Ilkhanate origin.
  46. ^ Eastmond, Antony (1 January 2021). Monumental Painting and the Role of Images in Armenia under the Mongols. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 51, Note 12. ISBN 978-1588397379. Many of the courtiers in the Great Mongol Shahnamah, made in Tabriz in the 1330s, wear similar dress. Melville 2002, figs 45, 51
  47. ^ Armenia: Art, Religion, and Trade in the Middle Ages - MetPublications - The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2018. pp. 106–107.
  48. ^ Armenia: Art, Religion, and Trade in the Middle Ages - MetPublications - The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2018. pp. 106–107. Following the custom of the time, a representation of the commissioner, Each'i Proshian, is engraved at the bottom center of the frame. His hands are upraised in the ancient Christian orant prayer pose, and his clothing recalls Mongolian royal dress.
  49. ^ Nersessian, Vrej (2001). Treasures from the Ark: 1700 Years of Armenian Christian Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-0892366392. The portrait of the founder as huntsman is an iconographic type common to Islamic art. Amir Hasan's costume, a long tunic drawn in at the waist by a belt decorated with stones, along with a three-pointed cap with two ribbons, is the same as that of the Mongol princes of the fourteenth century. The face itself, with heavy jowls and slightly slanting eves, also recalls that of the Mongols.
  50. ^ Grekov, Boris, ed. (1953). Очерки истории СССР. Период феодализма IX-XV вв.: В 2 ч. [Essays on the history of the USSR. The period of feudalism IX-XV centuries: In 2 volumes]. Moscow: Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. OCLC 8470090. …the political power of the Zakarids was formed and strengthened, heading the restored Armenian statehood in indigenous Armenia. The territory subject to the Zakarids was an Armenian state, vassal to the then reigning house of the Georgian Bagratids; The Zakharid government had the right to court and collect taxes. The main responsibility of the Armenian government to the Georgian government was to provide it with military militia during the war.
  51. ^ Hodous, Florence (2018). "Inner Asia 1100s-1405: The Making of Chinggisid Eurasia". In Fairey, Jack; Farell, Brian (eds.). Empire in Asia: A New Global History: From Chinggisid to Qing. Vol. 1. London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 20. ISBN 9781472591234. Vassal states such as the Uyghur kingdom of Qocho (until 1335), Zakarid Armenia, Cilicia, Georgia, and Korea similarly owed the empire taxes, troops, and loyalty, but were otherwise left to govern themselves.
  52. ^ Eastmond, Antony (1 January 2017). Tamta's World: The Life and Encounters of a Medieval Noblewoman from the Middle East to Mongolia. Cambridge University Press. p. 373. doi:10.1017/9781316711774.014. Perhaps the most extreme case came when Armenians, including Avag, his cousin Shahnshah and his vassal Hasan Prosh, were required to besiege Mayyafariqin, the northernmost Ayyubid base in the Jazira before the capture of Akhlat. It took two years to reduce the city, leading to a situation far worse than that faced in Akhlat in 1229–30.
  53. ^ Biran, Michal; Kim, Hodong (31 July 2023). The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire 2 Volumes. Cambridge University Press. p. 721. ISBN 978-1-009-30197-8. That same year marked the clash between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate. Berke's claim on Transcaucasia, especially on the rich pastures of Azerbaijan, ended in a forceful attack in the north of the country. The Georgians were compelled to grant military support and a garrison was sent to preside over the fortress of Siba (today in the Iranian district of Kukherd) in 1263, and in 1265 an army comprising Georgians and Armenians defeated Berke in Shirvan.
  54. ^ Biran, Michal; Kim, Hodong (31 July 2023). The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire 2 Volumes. Cambridge University Press. p. 722. ISBN 978-1-009-30197-8. According to Rashid al-Din, Alinaq was the son of Tügür Bitigchi, commander of a hundred at Hülegü's service.
  55. ^ Lang, David M. (1955). "Numismatic History of Georgia (Georgia under the Mongols)". ANS Numismatic Notes and Monographs. 128–132: 60–61. The numismatic evidence suggests however that Giorgi's successes were of a more modest nature. An uninterrupted series of standard Il-Khanid silver coins were struck at Tiflis until the 1350's. (...) No coins struck in the name of Giorgi the Brilliant are known to us, with the somewhat dubious exception of a few specimens of crude fabric from a 14th century hoard published by D. Kapanadze. These are apparently imitations of later Il-Khanid patterns, though Kapanadze's reproductions are not good enough to give a clear impression.
  56. ^ a b "ANS Numismatic Notes and Monographs, nos. 128-132". ANS Numismatic Notes and Monographs: 61. 1955.
  57. ^ a b Harris, Jonathan; Holmes, Catherine; Russell, Eugenia (29 November 2012). Byzantines, Latins, and Turks in the Eastern Mediterranean World After 1150. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-964188-8. Georgia during the second part of his reign (1327–46), nonetheless had little control of the type of silver currency which was struck at Tiflis and Kakheti. The dominant coins struck in these two Georgian mints were Ilkhanid dirhams.
  58. ^ Akopyan, Alexander; Mosanef, Farbod (1 January 2015). "Between Jujids and Jalayirids: the coinage of the Chopanids, Akhijuq and their contemporaries, 754–759/1353–1358". Der Islam: 203–204, Fig. 1.
  59. ^ a b Dundua, Tedo; Avdaliani, Emil (2016). "Coins of Muslim Rulers Struck at Tbilisi Mint (General Overview)". Institute of Georgian History, Proceedings, Special Issue III. 11 (11): 569.
  60. ^ Lang, David M. (1955). ANS Numismatic Notes and Monographs, nos. 128-132. pp. 67–68. The Georgian chronicles pass over this troubled era in virtual silence. It is noteworthy that in spite of the prevailing chaos, the Il-Khanid mint at Tiflis continued to function regularly, as well as a new one at Qara-Aghach in Kakhet'i, on Georgia's south-eastern border.
  61. ^ Lang, David M. (1955). ANS Numismatic Notes and Monographs, nos. 128-132. pp. 67–68. The next of these ephemeral rulers represented in the Tiflis series is Muhammad Khan, who reigned under the aegis of Shaykh Hasan Buzurg, the Jala'ir chieftain. He was little more than a figurehead, and was killed in 1338, when the Chupani, Hasan Kuchuk, conquered Azerbaijan and Georgia.
  62. ^ a b Akopyan, Alexander; Mosanef, Farbod (1 January 2015). "Between Jujids and Jalayirids: the coinage of the Chopanids, Akhijuq and their contemporaries, 754–759/1353–1358". Der Islam: 126, Fig. 4. doi:10.1515/ISLAM-2015-0008.
  63. ^ a b Biran, Michal; Kim, Hodong (17 August 2023). The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire 2 Volumes. Cambridge University Press. p. 766. ISBN 978-1-009-30197-8. Georgia paid the Ilkhanid treasury 1,202,000 dinars in 1336. Before the Mongol invasion, the Georgian treasury collected, in a comparable territory, almost five times as much. (...) If George V had achieved independence from the Ilkhans, he would never have issues coins in the name of the Mongols. Thus in the mid-fourteenth century, Tiflis and eastern Georgia were strictly subjects of the Ilkhanate.
  64. ^ Lang, David M. (1955). "Numismatic History of Georgia (Georgia under the Mongols)". ANS Numismatic Notes and Monographs. 128–132: 76. These Tatar invasions help to explain why no coins have come to light bearing the name of the Georgian king David IX (1346-60), the successor of Giorgi the Brilliant. Nor have any been discovered that can be attributed with any confidence to Bagrat V (1360-93).
  65. ^ a b Dundua, Tedo; Avdaliani, Emil (2016). "Coins of Muslim Rulers Struck at Tbilisi Mint (General Overview)". Institute of Georgian History, Proceedings, Special Issue III. 11 (11): 570.
  66. ^ Lang, David M. (1955). "Numismatic History of Georgia (Georgia under the Mongols)". ANS Numismatic Notes and Monographs. 128–132: 75. The most powerful of the minor dynasties which carved up the disrupted Il-Khanid empire was that of the Jala'irs, the descendants of Shaykh Hasan Buzurg. These princes made Baghdad their capital, but gained control over much of Persia and Transcaucasia. For a short time after the suppression of Anushirvan, the mints at Tiflis and at Qara-Aghach were under Jala'irid control. Dirhems struck in the name of Shaykh Hasan, and, apparently anonymously, by his successor Uwais were minted in both places in A.H. 757-8/ 1356-7.
  67. ^ Salmi, Mario (1 January 1962). Encyclopedia of World Art, Vol. VI: Games and Toys - Greece. McGraw-Hill Book Company. pp. 148–149. As already mentioned, Mongolian-type bows were widespread in Georgia from the second half of the 13th century. H.1665 David's miniatures clearly show a composite bow with a middle plate seam and a massive insert at the ends
  68. ^ a b c Tsurtsumia, Mamuka (1 January 2008). "სინას მთის წმინდა მხედრები. Warrior Saints from Sinai". ქართველოლოგია (Kartvelian studies), 12: 341–342, 346. As already mentioned, Mongolian-type bows were widespread in Georgia from the second half of the 13th century. H.1665 David's miniatures clearly show a composite bow with a middle plate seam and a massive insert at the ends, which is depicted on the Sinai icons of St. It is similar to Sergi's bow (Fig. 20). Bow Case (Khilifa). Some information is also provided by the bow of the holy warriors dressed in the sable and placed in its nest; It is during the Mongol period that such (half-bow) shaped shalits spread, where, unlike the earlier ones, bows already stretched or prepared for combat are placed. Georgians, since the arrival of the Mongols, used this type of bow nest, which can be clearly seen on the miniature of David (Fig. 18).
  69. ^ Salmi, Mario (1 January 1962). Encyclopedia of World Art, Vol. VI: Games and Toys - Greece. McGraw-Hill Book Company. pp. 148–149.
  70. ^ Ashrafyan, K. Z. (1998). "Central Asia under Timur from 1370 to the early fifteenth century". In Asimov, M. S. (ed.). History of civilizations of Central Asia: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century. Part 1: Vol. 4, The age of achievement The historical, social and economic setting (PDF). Paris: UNESCO Publ. ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1.
  71. ^ "The Turco-Mongol Invasions". Rbedrosian.com. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  72. ^ Studies in the history of Georgia, Vol. 3, Tbilisi, 1979, p. 732
  73. ^ Munt, Harry (2017). The Jalayirids: Dynastic State Formation in the Mongol Middle East. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. Map 3. ISBN 978 1 4744 0225 5.

Sources

allikas: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia_(1256%E2%80%931329)