Water is poured on the head of an infant

Infant baptism, also known as paedobaptism, is a Christian sacramental practice of baptizing infants and young children. Such practice is done in the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and various Protestant denominations, including Methodists, Presbyterians, Lutherans, and Anglicans. The practice involves baptizing infants born to believing parents as a means of initiating them into the Christian faith. Supporters of infant baptism cite biblical references to the baptism of entire households in the New Testament, as well as Jesus’ teachings on welcoming children, as justification for this approach.[1]

In contrast, believers' baptism (credobaptism) is based on the premise that baptism should be administered only to individuals who can personally profess their faith. Those who support this view argue that baptism is a conscious act of commitment to Christianity, requiring an understanding of its significance. As a result, they maintain that only those capable of articulating their belief should participate in the sacrament. This perspective is commonly held by Baptist traditions, Pentecostals, and other evangelical groups. Proponents of believers’ baptism argue that the absence of explicit references to infant baptism in the New Testament, along with the significance of baptism as a personal commitment.[1]

Etymology

Theologian Joachim Jeremias (2004) and William A. Strange (1996) argued that it originated in the apostolic age, claiming children of converts were baptized with their families.[2][3] Advocates point to the many households mentioned to be baptized within Acts of the Apostles (16:15, 33) and 1 Corinthians 1:16 as potential evidence. The Global Dictionary of Theology (2009) acknowledges the ambiguity of these accounts, stating that while infants may have been included, the texts do not provide explicit confirmation.[4] Jeremias cites that baptism extended to all household members because the Old Testament concept of “household” is inherently inclusive, drawing upon interpretations of 1 Samuel 22:16–19 and Genesis 17:23.[3] Therefore, the term "house" (oikos) has been central to this debate.[5]

History

First century

The New Testament does not explicitly mandate infant baptism, nor does it clearly indicate that infants were regarded as candidates for baptism during that period.[6][7][8][4]

Some scholars such as historian David F. Wright suggest that in first-century Pauline churches, baptism did not include infants. Wright describes the issue of infant baptism as 'obscurity unresolved,' suggesting that while evidence indicates that in Pauline churches, the children of baptized Christians were not typically baptized until at least c. 55 AD, the extent of this practice remains unclear.[9][10]

Theologian Joachim Jeremias (2004) and William A. Strange (1996) argued that it originated in the apostolic age, claiming children of converts were baptized with their families.[2][3] Advocates point to the many households mentioned to be baptized within Acts of the Apostles (16:15, 33) and 1 Corinthians 1:16 as potential evidence. The Global Dictionary of Theology (2009) acknowledges the ambiguity of these accounts, stating that while infants may have been included, the texts do not provide explicit confirmation.[4] Jeremias cites that baptism extended to all household members because the Old Testament concept of “household” is inherently inclusive, drawing upon interpretations of 1 Samuel 22:16–19 and Genesis 17:23.[3] Therefore, the term "house" (oikos) has been central to this debate.[5]

The analogy between circumcision and baptism is a key argument for early infant baptism. In Jewish tradition, boys were circumcised on the eighth day, and some scholars argue early Jewish Christians viewed baptism similarly.[5] Beyond the circumcision analogy, Jewish proselyte baptism involved entire households, including children, as a purification rite for Gentile converts to Judaism.[11] Aland disagrees, stating it not a standard practice for Jewish-born children, and its evidence of usage among Jewish Christians lacks evidence, as Jewish children were typically incorporated via circumcision, not baptism, weakening the parallel to Christian practice.[12]

The earliest Christian texts addressing the sinfulness of infants or small children include:

  • Clement of Rome (1 Clement 14.4) stated "No one is clean from defilement, not even if his life be but one day old." Although used out of context, it later became a proof-text for baptism dealing with original sin.[13]
  • The Shepherd of Hermas explicitly portrays children as models of discipleship and moral purity. That they are inherently innocent, free of evil or wickedness, and serve as a model for believers.[13][14]
  • The Didache, a church order, which gives instructions on how adult baptism is conducted, yet children are to be given instruction preventing future sin.[15]

Second century

The second century, especially texts, does not provide explicit evidence on the practice of infant baptism.[4][5] However, Wright and Aland posits there are some literary traces emerging toward the end of the second century (200 AD).[16][9][5]

Some advocates mention Irenaeus of Lyon who wrote: "infants, small children, youngsters, youths, and old folk" as being "born again".[4] Scholars such as Bakke (2005) and Nelson (1996) interpret this as an explicit reference to baptism.[5][17] Bakke accepts only on the condition that "reborn" (renascuntur) is a technical term for baptism.[5] Although Jenson (2012) and Meyers (1988) argue that it lacks specificity regarding infants.[18][19]

During this period, as Christianity expanded, structured catechesis became necessary to ensure converts were well-prepared for their faith, especially amid persecution and heresies. The development of catechesis led to a more formalized approach to baptism, making it less common for infants to be baptized without preparation.[17]

Some early Christian apologists appeared to believe infants or small children were free of sin or innocent. Examples of such teachings included:

  • Aristides of Athens (Apology, Chapter 15, c. 125 AD) wrote that children are born sinless and are converted through personal persuasion rather than through a formal baptismal rite. Aristides states, “And when a child is born to one of them, the Christians give thanks to God; and if the child dies in infancy, they give thanks even more, for it has passed from this life sinless.”[20]
  • Athenagoras of Athens (On the Resurrection of the Dead, c. 177 AD): infants who die are not judged, as they "have done neither evil nor good."[20]
  • Justin Martyr saw infants and children as morally neutral, sinless until they could rationally choose to sin, per his focus on free will and the "seed of the Logos" (Second Apology, 10, c. 153 AD). He praised purity in "disciples from childhood" (First Apology, 15, c. 155 AD) implying no innate sinfulness.[21]

Third century

Definitive evidence for infant baptism appears in the third century.[22] However, between the third and early fifth centuries, Christian parents commonly delayed baptizing their infants.[23] Reasons for this included the belief that postponing baptism maximized its spiritual benefits, the practice of administering baptism only in cases of imminent death, and hesitation from parents who had not yet been baptized themselves.[24]

The first clear reference to infant baptism comes from Tertullian, who opposed it. In On Baptism, he acknowledges it as an established custom but argues against it, suggesting that baptism should be delayed until individuals can personally profess faith.[25] Strange observed that Tertullian’s opposition to infant baptism marked a departure from prevailing practice, arguing that patristic evidence suggests it was already a recognized norm.[2] Additionally, Yilmaz (2020) notes that Tertullian's view did not resonate effectively in North African churches, where infant baptism continued as the general practice.[26] North Africa remained the region with the strongest support for infant baptism, and it may well have been where the practice originated.[25]

Other early references include:

  • Hippolytus of Rome (Apostolic Tradition 21.3-5) instructed: “And they shall baptize the little children first. And if they can answer for themselves, let them answer. But if they cannot, let their parents answer or someone from their family.”[25]
  • Origen claimed infant baptism was an apostolic tradition handed down to the church. Though it is unclear whether this was based on theological reasoning or specific scriptural interpretations.[25] His writings indicate that the practice was already well established.[24]
  • Cyprian of Carthage argued that baptism should not be delayed, even for newborns, stating that divine grace is not "distributed in greater or lesser degree according to the ages of the recipients."[24]

A third century inscription from Rome’s Catacomb of Priscilla mentions an infant who had received baptism before passing away. Such inscriptions suggest that infant baptism was practiced regularly, especially in cases of illness or impending death.[24] Scholars such as Jeremias and Everett Ferguson analyzed inscriptional evidence for infant baptism. Aland concluded that third-century inscriptions do not provide new insights beyond literary sources, as infant baptism was already documented by that time.[27]

Fourth century

During the fourth century, as Christianity shifted from being a persecuted or tolerated religion to one favored by the Roman state, two contrasting practices emerged. On one hand, the traditional catechumenate, characterized by extensive pre‐baptismal instruction (as seen in the works of Cyril of Jerusalem and Gregory of Nyssa) continued in some regions. On the other hand, a growing acceptance of infant baptism took root, driven by a developing theology of original sin.[28]

During this period, the Church strongly condemned Pelagianism, which questioned the necessity of baptism for salvation, and affirmed that baptism must be administered without delay. For example, official decrees such as the Council of Florence’s Pro Jacobitis warned against postponing baptism, thereby underlining that infants (and others) must receive baptism promptly to secure salvation. These developments, along with texts from the Council of Carthage and the Roman Catechism that taught unbaptized infants could not attain heaven, demonstrate that by the end of the fourth century infant baptism was a widely accepted and normative practice in the Church.[29]

However, Christian figures, including Tertullian, Rufinus, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil of Caesarea, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Cyril of Alexandria, reference infant dedication or enrollment into the catechumenate rather than immediate baptism. This practice was widespread across various regions, including Carthage, Trier, Constantinople, Caesarea, Milan, Stridon, Tagaste, and Alexandria. Thus, during the fourth century, infant dedication followed by catechumenate enrollment was more common than immediate infant baptism, which was typically reserved for emergencies.[30]

Several influential Christian figures of the fourth and fifth centuries, though born into Christian families, were not baptised as infants. These individuals include:[30]

Other early references include:

  • Augustine of Hippo in his opposition to Pelagius, he argued that baptism was necessary for remission of original sin and insisted that little ones belonged to Christ’s flock only through baptism. He warned that those who died unbaptized would not attain salvation.[31]
  • Gregory of Nazianzus stated that infants are "conscious neither of the loss nor of the grace" and should be baptized only "if any danger presses," otherwise, baptism should wait until they are at least three or mature enough to respond to questions.[31]
  • Jerome urged parents to baptize their children early. In his letter to Laeta (403 AD), he implied that failing to baptize children was neglecting parental duties.[31]

Archaeological evidence from baptismal fonts suggests variation in baptismal practices. Fourth-century iconography depicting small figures in baptism is interpreted either as baptism of Jesus or infant baptism. Funerary inscriptions from the third and fourth centuries indicate some infants were baptized in emergencies but do not establish it as a common practice.[31]

Fifth century

By the late fifth century, the doctrine of original sin played an increasingly central role in discussions on the necessity of infant baptism. As Augustinianism gained widespread acceptance in the West, the Council of Carthage (418 AD) had already declared that infants, though innocent in their personal acts, inherited original sin from Adam and thus required baptism to be cleanse of sin.[28]

By the late fifth and early sixth centuries, a growing emphasis on the doctrine of repeatable penance further heightened fears that unbaptized infants would suffer eternal damnation. This period saw a shift in practice: parents began engaging in formal baptismal preparation activities on behalf of their children. Over time, these preparations gave way to a consolidated ceremony, where newborn infants were baptised, anointed (confirmation), and received communion all at once to ensure that even the youngest members of the community were promptly incorporated into the salvific rite.[28]

Documents such as John the Deacon’s letter (circa 500 AD) highlight that the Church’s teaching and practice had firmly established infant baptism as essential for salvation in response to inherited sin.[28] Large fonts from this period indicate that adult baptism continued alongside infant baptism well into the sixth and seventh centuries.[24]

In 526 AD, eastern Roman emperor, Justinian I made infant baptism compulsory.[24]

Medieval and Reformation period

By the 6th century, it became common practice for Christians to be baptized at birth, with infants making up the majority of candidates.[32]

High infant mortality contributed greatly to the spread of paedobaptism from the 6th century onwards, which was often practiced as a baptism in extremis (hence the use of the respite sanctuary). Infant baptism became widespread with the Carolingian and then Gregorian reforms of the 9th century and then the 11th-12th centuries.[33]

During the medieval and Reformation eras, infant baptism was seen as a way to incorporate newborn babies into the secular community as well as inducting them into the Christian faith.[34] Due to high rates of infant mortality, it is important to note that canon law denied unbaptized infants a Christian burial in sacred ground.[35]

Theological perspectives

Covenant theology

Original sin

Denominational views

Roman Catholic

The Roman Catholic Church's denominational view on infant baptism is governed by Canon 868 §1, 2˚ CIC, which states that for an infant to be baptized licitly (lawfully), there must be a founded hope that the infant will be brought up in the Catholic religion. If such hope is lacking, baptism should be delayed rather than denied, with the parents being informed of the reason for the delay. The Church believes that baptism provides the essential gift of regeneration, freeing the infant from original sin and incorporating them into the life of Christ.[36]

Baptism is a fundamental sacrament in the Church, marking the initiation of an individual into Christian life and the Church community. It is essential for salvation, providing spiritual rebirth and access to other sacraments. However, the Church imposes conditions to ensure that baptized infants will be raised in the Catholic faith (Canon 868 §1, 2˚ CIC). Parental consent is a primary requirement, with at least one parent or legal guardian needing to approve the baptism. The sacrament is never administered against the will of the parents, except in cases of danger of death, where baptism may proceed regardless of parental objections.[36]

Baptism is seen as a one-time sacrament that marks a person’s commitment to Christ and cannot be repeated. If there is serious doubt about whether someone was baptized before or if it was done correctly, the Catholic Church allows a conditional baptism to be performed. However, the Church no longer approves the practice of baptizing miscarried or stillborn infants in these cases.[37]

Regarding the method of using water, two concerns arise, whether baptism should involve pouring or sprinkling water on the head rather than full-body immersion. The Church maintains that the symbolic meaning of cleansing is still upheld through the ritual act of pouring water.[37]

The Church acknowledges the importance of a personal decision in baptism, which infants cannot make. To address this, godparents are appointed to stand in for the child, committing to their Christian upbringing on behalf of the parents. The role of parents and godparents is strongly emphasized in the Church’s rite of infant baptism, first introduced in 1969 and later revised. As they grow, baptized children are expected to embrace the faith chosen for them, confirming the decision made on their behalf.[37]

Infant baptism in the Roman Catholic Church developed gradually, rooted in early Christian tradition, original sin, and sacramental theology. While adult baptism was initially dominant, the practice of baptizing infants became common by the third century. Cyprian of Carthage (c. 250 AD) defended it, arguing that baptismal grace should not be denied to children.[38]

In the fourth century, Augustine of Hippo strengthened its theological foundation by linking baptism to original sin, asserting that it was necessary for salvation. His arguments shaped medieval sacramental theology, which emphasized that baptism remained valid regardless of personal faith (ex opere operato).[38]

Historically, infant baptism was partly justified by the belief in limbo (limbus infantium), a concept suggesting that unbaptized children’s souls neither suffer in hell nor experience heaven. Though theologians like Aquinas discussed it, the Catholic Church never officially declared it as doctrine. From the 12th century onward, many believed unbaptized children went to limbo.[37]

In the 16th century, the Council of Trent (1545–1563) reaffirmed the necessity of infant baptism in response to Protestant objections. By this time, it had become the standard practice, reinforced by godparents and catechesis. However, by the 20th century, the belief in limbo had diminished, and the Church now teaches that such infants are entrusted to God and Jesus' mercy. Today, the Catholic Church continues the tradition, viewing baptism as essential for initiating infants into the faith and freeing them from original sin.[38]

Eastern Orthodoxy

The Eastern Orthodox Church practices infant baptism as a fundamental part of its sacramental theology, viewing it as the child's initiation into the Church and participation in the life of Jesus.[39] The baptism is performed through triple immersion in water, symbolizing the believer’s sharing in Christ’s death and resurrection.[39] In Orthodox theology, sacraments are considered effective by the very act of their completion (ex opere operato), meaning they impart divine grace regardless of the recipient’s personal understanding.[40]

The Orthodox Church, like the Roman Catholic Church, believes that baptism results in the forgiveness of sins, both original and actual. Through baptism, the newly baptized is "clothed with Christ" and becomes a full member of the Church.[40] The sacrament is viewed as a mystical communion with God, through which grace is given for salvation and spiritual transformation. This understanding reflects the Orthodox belief that sacraments are "Mysteries", divine means by which humanity experiences salvation and anticipates eternal life in God’s kingdom.[40]

Baptism in the Orthodox Church is immediately followed by Chrismation (Confirmation) and Holy Communion, emphasizing the unity of these three sacraments.[39] Chrismation, administered by the priest, involves anointing the baptized with Holy Myron (Chrism), sealing them with the gift of the Holy Spirit. The newly baptized, including infants, then receive the Eucharist, partaking in consecrated wine and bread as their first communion.[39] This integrated approach contrasts with many Western Christian traditions, where these sacraments are administered separately at different stages of life.

The baptism of infants is performed on the basis of the faith of the Church, rather than the personal profession of the child.[39] The commitment of parents and godparents plays a crucial role, as they pledge to raise the child in the Orthodox faith. While infants are traditionally baptized on the eighth day, mirroring the Old Testament practice of circumcision, this timing is not strictly required, and baptisms may occur at any time.[41] Orthodox theology holds that baptism is essential for salvation and the remission of original sin, making it a vital sacrament in the life of every Orthodox Christian.[42]

Protestant

Lutheran

Lutherans uphold infant baptism by pointing to scriptural references where entire households were baptized (e.g., Acts 16:15). They argue that households in biblical times included children​. According to Martin Luther, baptism is not founded on personal faith, as one can never be certain of faith. Instead, it is based on God's word and commandment. The faith involved is that of those who bring the child to baptism (fides aliena), such as parents, godparents, and the church congregation.[43]

Lutherans believe that through baptism, the child receives infused faith, mediated by the prayers of the church, parents, and godparents. Baptism purifies and renews the child. Personal faith is not a prerequisite for baptism but is nourished by it, as the individual continually adheres to God's grace and renounces sin throughout life. The Augsburg Confession (II) states that baptism is necessary for salvation. It is an assignment to Christ, a surrender into Jesus’ death and resurrection, and a gift of new life that calls the baptized to walk in faith.[43]

While baptism marks initiation into the church and incorporation into the people of God, it is viewed as the beginning of a lifelong journey. If not taken in faith, baptism remains incomplete. In the post-Reformation era, Lutheran orthodoxy reaffirmed the necessity of infant baptism. However, later movements such as Pietism and Rationalism emphasized inner experience over the sacrament, leading figures like John Wesley to argue that true rebirth occurs through personal transformation, not the outward ritual​.[43]

Methodist

Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Churches

Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Christians believe that baptism, whether of infants or adults, is a "sign and seal of the covenant of grace", and that baptism admits the party baptized into the visible church.[44] Being a member of the visible church does not guarantee salvation; though it does provide the child with many benefits, including that of one's particular congregation consenting to assist in the raising of that child in "the way he should go, (so that) when he is old he will not turn from it". Elect infants (those predestined for salvation) who die in infancy are by faith considered regenerate on the basis of God's covenant promises in the covenant of grace.[45]

Presbyterian, Congregational and many Reformed Christians see infant baptism as the New Testament form of circumcision in the Jewish covenant.[46] Circumcision did not create faith in the 8-day-old Jewish boy. It merely marked him as a member of God's covenant people Israel. Likewise, baptism does not create faith; it is a sign of membership in the visible covenant community.[47]

Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Christians consider children of professing Christians to be members of the visible church (the covenant community). They also consider them to be full members of the local congregation where their parents are members and members of the universal church (the set of all true believers who make up the invisible church) unless and until they prove otherwise. Baptism is the mark of membership in the covenant of grace and in the universal church, although regeneration is not inseparably connected with baptism.[48]

Anabaptist

Contrasts between infant and adult baptism

Infant baptism can be contrasted with what is called "believer's baptism" (or credobaptism, from the Latin word credo meaning "I believe"), which is the religious practice of baptizing only individuals who personally confess faith in Jesus, therefore excluding underage children.[49]

Pedobaptism and credobaptism are positions which bubble up from theological views at a more fundamental level of one's theological system.

  • If baptism is a sign that a person is a member of God's covenant community, and if the children of believers are members of that community, it follows that the children of believers should receive the sign that they are members of God's covenant community by being baptized, as an infant is entitled to a passport that indicates the child as a member of a particular country.[50]
  • Believers and the children of believers become members of God's covenant community (or church) through baptism.[51]
  • It is believed by some Christians that in the heart of a baptized child, faith as a gift or grace from God, as distinct from an act by the person, is made present.[52]
  • It is believed by some Christians that baptism is not merely a symbol and that it has a real effect, conveying divine grace.[53]

Arguments for infant baptism

Christians who practice infant baptism do not completely agree on the reasons for doing so, and offer different reasons in support of the practice. Among the arguments made in support of the practice are:

  • Analogy with circumcision: Some Christians posit an analogy of baptism to circumcision, pointing to children, since the historic Israelite application of circumcision was to infants, not to adult converts, of which there were few. Covenant theology identifies baptism less as a statement of faith than as an assumption of identity; that is to say that infant baptism is a sign of covenantal inclusion.[54] Assuming that what God instituted in the Old Testament continues unless the New Testament specifically abrogates it, including infants in the giving of the sign of the covenant must continue in the New Covenant. It is especially so if the practice is an important one.[55]
  • Jesus' affirmation: According to Luke 18:15-17, when parents brought their babies to Jesus, the disciples tried to prevent them from coming. Jesus becomes indignant and says, "Let the little children come to me, and do not hinder them, for the kingdom of God belongs to such as these." This seems to confirm that infants can have a personal relationship with Jesus just as parents can have a personal relationship with their babies. More importantly, Jesus confirms that babies of believers belong to the kingdom of God. In other words, babies of believers are counted as believers, not unbelievers. Therefore, Jesus specifically instructs not to hinder them.[56]
  • Peter's speech: According to the Book of Acts, "Peter replied, 'Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. The promise is for you and your children and for all who are far off—for all whom the Lord our God will call.'" (Acts 2:38–39, NIV–UK, emphasis added)[57] Some churches within The United Methodist Church argue that the phrase "every one of you" recalls the use of the same phrase in Deuteronomy 29:10–12,[58] where there is explicit mention of the "little ones" present; and it takes the phrase "and your children" to mean that Peter included children in the covenant community.[59]
  • Early Christian practice: Several early Church Fathers seem to have taught that infant baptism is proper; Origen states that the practice of baptizing infants is of apostolic origin.[60]

Arguments against infant baptism

  • Infants cannot repent or believe: Baptism in Scripture always has the prerequisite of repentance and faith, which are impossible for an infant.[61][62]
  • No scriptural instances: There are no explicit instances of infant baptism in the scripture[61]

Denominations and religious groups opposed to infant baptism

Trinitarian Christian denominations that oppose infant baptism include the International Christian Church, all Baptist and Anabaptist traditions and denominations, Pentecostals, Assemblies of God and more.[63]

Several nontrinitarian religious groups also oppose infant baptism, including Oneness Pentecostals, Christadelphians, Jehovah's Witnesses, United Church of God, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[64]

B.R. White describes the motivations behind persecution of the Anabaptists during the Reformation as follows:

Other Christians saw the baptism of each new-born baby into the secular parish community and close links between church and state as the divinely-ordained means of holding society together. Hence many other Christians saw the Anabaptists as subversive of all order. Consequently, from the earliest days, they were sharply persecuted and leaders were soon executed.[65]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) completely rejects infant baptism.[64] Little children are considered both born without sin[66] and incapable of committing sin.[67] They have no need of baptism until age eight,[68] when they can begin to learn to discern right from wrong, and are thus accountable to God for their own actions.[69] However, the LDS Church performs a non-saving ordinance to name and bless children, customarily performed on infants.[70]

Confirmation

For Catholic, Methodist Christians, and Weslian Confirmation "strengthens" (the original meaning of the word "confirm")[71][72] the grace of Baptism, by conferring an increase and deepening of that grace.[73][72]

In Eastern Christianity, including the Eastern Catholic Churches, the sacrament of Confirmation is conferred immediately after baptism, and there is no renewal of baptismal promises. In the Latin Church and its Latin liturgical rites of the Catholic Church, the sacrament is to be conferred at about the age of discretion (generally taken to be about 7), unless the Episcopal Conference has decided on a different age, or there is danger of death or, in the judgment of the minister, a grave reason suggests otherwise (canon 891 of the Code of Canon Law). The renewal of baptismal promises by those receiving the sacrament in the Western Catholic Church is incidental to the rite and not essentially different from the solemn renewal of their baptismal promises that is asked of all members of this church each year at the Easter Vigil service. Only in French-speaking countries has there been a development of ceremonies, quite distinct from the sacrament of Confirmation, for young Catholics to profess their faith publicly, in line with their age.[74]

Within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, confirmation or "the laying on of hands" is an essential part of the baptismal ordinance, and to receive baptism without confirmation is to leave the ordinance incomplete.[75] Confirmation is the conferring of the gift of the Holy Ghost as a constant companion.[76] To confirm means to "make more sure" and the ordinance of confirmation stands as a witness of the individual becoming a member of the LDS Church and not just an acceptance of Jesus.[75]

Opposition to infant baptism

According to Catholic legal professor and former Irish president Mary McAleese, as outlined in her doctoral thesis, infant baptism amounts to "enforced membership of the Catholic Church", which violates fundamental rights of children. These "infant conscripts ... are held to lifelong obligations of obedience" without their understanding or consent. "Parents can guide and direct [their children] but they can't impose, and what the church has failed to do is to recognize that there has to be a point at which our young people, as adults who have been baptized into the church and raised in the faith, have the chance to say 'I validate this' or 'I repudiate this'. You and I know, we live now in times where we have the right to freedom of conscience, freedom of belief, freedom of opinion, freedom of religion and freedom to change religion. The Catholic Church yet has to fully embrace that thinking."[77]

Controversies

Baptisms have sometimes accidentally led to injuries, or deaths, such as drowning deaths, to babies.[78][79] In Romania, this has served as an opportunity to revise practices.[80]

Yazidi baptism

Baptism of a Yazidi child in Lalish

In Yazidism, children are baptized at birth and circumcision is not required, but is practiced by some due to regional customs.[81] The Yazidi baptism is called Mor kirin (literally: 'to seal'). Traditionally, Yazidi children are baptized at birth with water from the Kaniya Sipî ('White Spring') at Lalish. It involves pouring holy water from the spring on the child's head three times.[82][83]

See also

References

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  4. ^ a b c d e Dyrness, W. A., Kärkkäinen, V.-M., Chan, S., & Martínez, J. F. (Eds.). (2009). Global dictionary of theology: A resource for the worldwide church (p. 99). InterVarsity Press.
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  10. ^ Wright, D. F. (2005). The apostolic fathers and infant baptism: Any advance on the obscurity of the New Testament? In A. Gregory & C. Tuckett (Eds.), Trajectories through the New Testament and the apostolic fathers (pp. 123–133). Oxford University Press.
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  12. ^ Aland, K. (1963). Did the early church baptize infants? (G. R. Beasley-Murray, Trans.). SCM Press. (Original work published 1961), pp. 54–57.
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  16. ^ Aland, K. (2004). Did the early church baptize infants? Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 10.
  17. ^ a b Nelson, M. E. (1996). Catechesis and baptism in the early Christian church. In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi, 30(4), 557–570. https://doi.org/10.4102/ids.v30i4.1588
  18. ^ Meyers, R. A. (1988). Infant communion: Reflections on the case from tradition. Anglican and Episcopal History, 57(2), 159–175. Historical Society of the Episcopal Church. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42610259
  19. ^ Jensen, R. M. (2012). Material and documentary evidence for the practice of early christian baptism. Journal of Early Christian Studies, 20(3), 371-405. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/material-documentary-evidence-practice-early/docview/1081167146/se-2
  20. ^ a b Ferguson, E. (1999). The Beginning of Infant Baptism. In Early Christians Speak: Faith and Life in the First Three Centuries (3rd ed., pp. 53–64). ACU Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1k3nq1f.8
  21. ^ Bakke, 2005, pp. 56–60
  22. ^ Aland, K. (2004). Did the early church baptize infants? Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 10.
  23. ^ Messmer, A. (2022). Infant Dedication in the Early Church: Texts, Commentary, and Present-Day Application. Journal of European Baptist Studies, 22(2), 61-89.
  24. ^ a b c d e f Jensen, R. M. (2012). Material and documentary evidence for the practice of early christian baptism. Journal of Early Christian Studies, 20(3), 371-405. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/material-documentary-evidence-practice-early/docview/1081167146/se-2
  25. ^ a b c d Ferguson, E. (1999). The beginning of infant baptism. In Early Christians Speak: Faith and Life in the First Three Centuries (p. 58). ACU Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1k3nq1f
  26. ^ Yılmaz, N. (2020). Tertullian’s Understanding of Baptism. Amasya İlahiyat Dergisi, (14), 375-402.
  27. ^ Ferguson, E. (1979, April). Inscriptions and the origin of infant baptism. The Journal of Theological Studies, XXX(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1093/jts/XXX.1.37
  28. ^ a b c d Lawson, K. E. (2011). Baptismal theology and practices and the spiritual nurture of children: Part I: Early and medieval church. Christian Education Journal, 8(1), 137–139.
  29. ^ Van Roo, W. A. (1954). Infants dying without baptism: A survey of recent literature and determination of the state of the question. Gregorianum, 35(3), 406–473. GBPress–Gregorian Biblical Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2357061
  30. ^ a b Messmer, A. (2022). Infant Dedication in the Early Church: Texts, Commentary, and Present-Day Application. Journal of European Baptist Studies, 22(2), 61-89.
  31. ^ a b c d Jensen, R. M. (2012). Material and documentary evidence for the practice of early christian baptism. Journal of Early Christian Studies, 20(3), 371-405. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/material-documentary-evidence-practice-early/docview/1081167146/se-2
  32. ^ Yust, K.-M., Johnson, A. N., Sasso, S. E., & Roehlkepartain, E. C. (Eds.). (2006). Nurturing child and adolescent spirituality: Perspectives from the world's religious traditions (p. 85). Rowman & Littlefield.
  33. ^ "8 | 2001 La protection spirituelle au Moyen Âge". Cahiers de recherches médiévales (in French) (8). 15 January 2001. doi:10.4000/crm.376. ISSN 1272-9752.
  34. ^ White, BR, Handbook to Christian Belief, Eerdman's, p. 443.
  35. ^ Crow, Madison; Zori, Colleen; Zori, Davide (17 December 2020). "Doctrinal and Physical Marginality in Christian Death: The Burial of Unbaptized Infants in Medieval Italy". Religions. 11 (12): 1. doi:10.3390/rel11120678.
  36. ^ a b Jakubiak, T. (2018). The Founded Hope that an Infant will be Brought up in the Catholic Religion as a Condition for Baptism. Studia canonica, 52(2), 491-508.
  37. ^ a b c d "Roman Catholicism - Baptism, Sacraments, Faith | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 5 March 2025. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
  38. ^ a b c Johnson, M. E. (1999). Baptismal" Spirituality" in the Early Church and Its Implications for the Church Today. pp. 188-211.
  39. ^ a b c d e Heller, D. (2023). Baptism. In B. N. Wolfe et al. (Eds.), St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology. Retrieved March 5, 2025, from https://www.saet.ac.uk/Christianity/Baptism. pp.13-14.
  40. ^ a b c House, H. W. (2000). Baptism for the forgiveness of sins: Sign, seal, or means of grace? (Part 1). Christian Research Journal, 22(2), 1–33.
  41. ^ John Henry Parker; et al. (1844). "The Epistles of S. Cyprian, with the Council of Carthage, on the Baptism". Oxford, London. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
  42. ^ Ware, K. (1993). The Orthodox Church: An introduction to Eastern Christianity (p. 284). Penguin UK.
  43. ^ a b c (Heller, 2023, pp. 10-15)
  44. ^ Westminster Confession of Faith, Chapter 28, Section 1.
  45. ^ Westminster Confession of Faith, Chapter 10, Section 3.
  46. ^ Joshua 24:15
  47. ^ DeYoung, Kevin (12 March 2015). "A Brief Defense of Infant Baptism". The Gospel Coalition. Retrieved 11 October 2019.
  48. ^ Westminster Confession, Chapter 28, Section 1 and especially section 3. Baptized people are considered part of the covenant of grace by faith unless they prove otherwise by committing apostasy.
  49. ^ Slick, Matt (12 June 2009). "What is credobaptism?". Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
  50. ^ Calvin asked: "If the children of believers are partakers of the covenant without the help of understanding, there is no reason why they should be barred from the sign merely because they cannot swear to the provisions of the covenant" (Inst. 4, 16, 24, quoted in John Calvin: Infant Baptism Archived 10 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine)
  51. ^ "If baptism was demanded of the Jews as a prerequisite of church membership, we may reasonably conclude that the Gentiles were not admitted to the privilege except on the same condition" (Baptism a Condition of Church Membership Archived 7 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine).
  52. ^ "When an infant is baptized God creates faith in the heart of that infant. This faith cannot yet, of course, be expressed or articulated, yet it is real and present all the same (see e.g., Acts 2:38–39; Titus 3:5–6; Matt. 18:6; Luke 1:15; 2 Tim. 3:15)" (The Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod). Archived 6 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  53. ^ "The Most Holy Trinity gives the baptized sanctifying grace, the grace of justification:
    • Enabling them to believe in God, to hope in him, and to love him through the theological virtues;
    • Giving them the power to live and act under the prompting of the Holy Spirit through the gifts of the Holy Spirit;
    • Allowing them to grow in goodness through the moral virtues" (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1268)
  54. ^ DeYoung, Kevin (12 March 2015). "A Brief Defense of Infant Baptism". www.thegospelcoalition.org. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
  55. ^ "Does Baptism Replace Circumcision? An Examination of the Relationship between Circumcision and Baptism in Colossians 2:11–12".
  56. ^ "Should Babies be Baptized? | Christian Reformed Church".
  57. ^ Acts 2:38–39
  58. ^ Deuteronomy 29:10–12
  59. ^ "Baptism in the United Methodist Church". www.covingtonfumc.com. Archived from the original on 16 February 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  60. ^ "The Church received from the apostles the tradition of giving baptism even to infants" (Commentaries on Romans 5:9, quoted, for instance, in W. A. Jurgens, The Faith of the Early Fathers (Liturgical Press 1970 ISBN 9780814604328), vol. 1, p. 209).
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  62. ^ "Lesson 35: Why We Do Not Baptize Infants (Genesis 17 and other Scriptures)". Retrieved 20 September 2022. We do not baptize infants because baptism is a public confession of faith in obedience to Christ.
  63. ^ "New York City International Christian Church » A Member of the Sold Out Discipling Movement » We Desire to Know God…and to Make Him Known!". Archived from the original on 28 December 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
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  65. ^ Eerdman's Handbook to Christian Belief, William B. Eerdman's Publishing Company, 1982.
  66. ^ Merrill, Byron R. (1992). "Original sin". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 1052–1053. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  67. ^ Rudd, Calvin P. (1992). "Children: Salvation of Children". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 268–269. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  68. ^ Hawkins, Carl S. (1992). "Baptism". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 92–94. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  69. ^ Warner, C. Terry (1992). "Accountability". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
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  74. ^ cf. article Archived 24 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine entitled Redonner tout son sens à l'initiation chrétienne : un défi à relever in Lumière et Vie 270 (June 2006), proposing the establishment of as many as seven such occasions.
  75. ^ a b Craven, Rulon G. (1992). "Confirmation". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 310–311. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  76. ^ Porter, Bruce Douglas (1992). "Gift of the Holy Ghost". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 543–544. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  77. ^ McGarry, Patsy (22 June 2018). "Infant Baptism is enforced membership of the Catholic Church, says Mary McAleese". The Irish Times. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
  78. ^ Tasos Kokkinidis (20 October 2020). "Greek Orthodox Priest is Accused of Injuring Baby During Baptism". Greek Reporter. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  79. ^ AFP (4 February 2021). "Orthodox Church under fire in Romania after baby dies following baptism". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  80. ^ Stephen McGrath (5 February 2021). "Romania baptisms: Six-week-old baby's death sparks calls for change". BBC News. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  81. ^ Parry, O. H. (Oswald Hutton) (1895). "Six months in a Syrian monastery; being the record of a visit to the head quarters of the Syrian church in Mesopotamia, with some account of the Yazidis or devil worshipers of Mosul and El Jilwah, their sacred book". London : H. Cox.
  82. ^ "YAZIDIS ii. INITIATION IN YAZIDISM". Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  83. ^ Kreyenbroek, Philip G. (2009). Yezidism in Europe: Different Generations Speak about Their Religion. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-06060-8.

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