Agathidinae is a subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps. Some species have been used in biological control programs.[1]

Description

Agathidines are among the larger braconids, and diurnal members of this subfamily are often brightly patterned. They belong to the noncyclostome group.[citation needed] Several genera, such as Agathis, Cremnops and Disophrys, are characterized by elongate genae.[1]

Agithidines can be recognized by the following combinations of features: forewing veins M + CU not tubular in basal third or more, forewing vein RS complete to the wing margin (except Mesocoelus and Plesiocoelus), occipital carina absent, and second submarginal cell of forewing usually present (90% of species.)[1]

Distribution

They are found worldwide, but are more diverse in the tropics. However, some genera such as Agathis and Earinus are more speciose in temperate regions.[1][2]

Biology

Most Agathidines are solitary koinobiont endoparasitoids of concealed Lepidoptera larvae. However, the tribe Disophrini attacks free living Lepidoptera larvae. The tribes Agathidini and Earinini attack the first and second instar larvae of their hosts, contrasting with the Disophrini, which attack later instars, as well as the Cremnoptini, which parasitize every larval stage. Most species are diurnal, but many Disophrini are nocturnal, with pale coloration and enlarged ocelli.[1] Most species attack semi-concealed hosts, like leaf-rollers.[3]

Agathidines have three larval instars. They likely seek out and kill competitors as first instars. As final instars, they emerge from their host caterpillar, feed externally, then spin their cocoons. Temperate species overwinter in their hosts during their first instar.[3]

Some species, such as Earinus elator, seek out hosts very early in the year, "about the time of bud-burst of their hosts' host plants." In relation to this, they have evolved to complete their metamorphosis before winter so they can more easily seek out hosts early. To prevent their freezing from their nitrogen-filled Meconium onward, they secrete a goo rich in glycerol and fatty acids over the waste.[3] This reduces the freezing point of the water in the waste, preventing ice formation.[3][4]

Most tropical species are brightly colored and are involved in mimicry.[3][5]

Studies of the species Alabagrus texanus have found that males that arrive early to a site where females recently emerged from were often successful, but the very young and very old males were always unsuccessful. Males also had short-term memory regarding sites of female emergence.[3][6][7]

Agathidines have been noted to be more abundant in ecosystems where fluids are harder to obtain. Many have concealed nectar extraction adaptations (CNEAs) that make them more adapted to gaining nectar from flowers, "perhaps particularly from Asteraceae." These CNEAs include elongate malar regions, galea, glossa, and maxillary palps that form a tube.[3][8][9][10] These elongate mouthparts have independently evolved in the subfamily six times.[3][10]

Agathis clavatus has been found to practice the mating system of males searching for females at feeding sites (SFF). This strategy is hardly found in Ichneumonoidea.[3][11]

Taxonomy and phylogeny

The first attempt at a tribal arrangement for Agathidinae consisted of 2 tribes, Agathidini and Microdini. Sharkey revised the tribes in 1992 and considered 5 tribes, adding Cremnoptini, Disophrini, and Earini. The Microdini, then treated as Eumicrodini, was synonymized under Agathidini by Simbolotti and van Achterberg in 1999 to render 4 tribes. Phylogenetic analysis by Sharkey and Chapman in 2017 revealed that 4 tribes were insufficient and instead divided the subfamily into 7 tribes. They further found that the genera Asperagathis, Bassus, and Zosteragathis were not monophyletic. One problematic species, the Nearctic Bassus annulipes, was found to represent a complex of species. Further, Bassus annulipes was rendered under the tribe Lytopylini while the Old World species fell under Agathidini.[12]

Relationship with humans

Agathidines have been used for biological pest control. Notable examples include Agathis pumila for the western larch case-bearer, Alabagrus stigma for the sugarcane borer, and Bassus unicoloratus and Agathis gibbosa for the potato tuberworm.[1][3] Other species play important roles in their native ecosystems to suppress forestry pests, such as Bassus tumidulus which controls the population of Gypsonoma aceriana.[3][13]

Genera

The 63 genera placed here include:[14][12]

Tribe Agathidini Haliday, 1833

Tribe Agathirsini Sharkey, 2017

Tribe Cremnoptini Sharkey, 1992

Tribe Disophrini Sharkey, 1992

Tribe Earinini Sharkey, 1992

Tribe Lytopylini Sharkey, 2017

Tribe Mesocoelini Achterberg, 1990

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Wharton, Robert; Marsh, Paul; Sharkey, Michael (1997). Manual Of The New World Genera Of The Family Braconidae (Hymenoptera). Washington DC: The International Society of Hymenopterists.
  2. ^ Sharkey, Michael J. (1997). "Agathidinae". In Wharton, Robert A.; Marsh, Paul M.; Sharkey, Michael J. (eds.). Manual of the New World Genera of the Family Braconidae (Hymenoptera) (PDF). Washington DC: The International Society of Hymenopterists. p. 69. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-08-03. Retrieved 2017-06-13.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Quicke, Donald L. J. (2015). Biology, systematics, evolution and ecology of Braconid and Ichneumonid parasitoid wasps. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 272–275. ISBN 978-1-118-90706-1.
  4. ^ Shaw, M. R.; Quicke, D. L. J. (2000-04-01). "The biology and early stages of Acampsis alternipes (Nees), with comments on the relationships of the Sigalphinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)". Journal of Natural History. 34 (4): 611–628. Bibcode:2000JNatH..34..611S. doi:10.1080/002229300299471. ISSN 0022-2933.
  5. ^ Leathers, Jason Wayne; Leathers, Jason Wayne; Sharkey, Michael J. (2003-10-17). "Taxonomy and life history of Costa Rican Alabagrus (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), with a key to world species". Contributions in Science. 497: 1––78. doi:10.5962/p.214390.
  6. ^ Goh, Michelle Z.; Morse, Douglass H. (2010-09-01). "Male mate search for female emergence sites by a parasitic wasp". Animal Behaviour. 80 (3): 391–398. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.05.021. ISSN 0003-3472.
  7. ^ Adams, Seira Ashley; Morse, Douglass H. (2014-02-01). "Condition-dependent mate choice of a parasitoid wasp in the field". Animal Behaviour. 88: 225–232. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.12.004. ISSN 0003-3472.
  8. ^ SHARKEY, M. J; MASON, W. R. M. (1986). "The generic validity of Aenigmostomus and Asiacardiochiles (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)". The Generic Validity of Aenigmostomus and Asiacardiochiles (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). 88 (2): 300–302. ISSN 0013-8797.
  9. ^ Pucci, Thomas; Sharkey, Michael (2004). "Agathidinae) With Notes on Mouthpart Morphology" (PDF). Journal of Hymenoptera Research. 13 (1): 64–107.
  10. ^ a b Tucker, Erika; Sharkey, Michael; Stoelb, Stephanie (2012-01-10). "A new species-group of Camptothlipsis (Braconidae: Agathidinae) from South Africa, with notes on the evolution of long mouthparts". Journal of Hymenoptera Research. 24: 59–74. doi:10.3897/jhr.24.1909. ISSN 1314-2607.
  11. ^ Belokobylskij, S.A.; Jervis, M.A. (1998-08-01). "Descriptions of two new species of the genus Agathis Latreille (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Agathidinae) from Spain, with a record of mating by one species on flowers". Journal of Natural History. 32 (8): 1217–1225. Bibcode:1998JNatH..32.1217B. doi:10.1080/00222939800770601. ISSN 0022-2933.
  12. ^ a b c Sharkey, Michael J.; Chapman, Eric G. (2017). "Phylogeny of the Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) with a Revised Tribal Classification and the Description of a New Genus". Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington. 119 (sp1): 823–842. doi:10.4289/0013-8797.119.SpecialIssue.823.
  13. ^ Georgiev, G.; Delkov, A. (2003). "Bioecological characteristics of Bassus tumidulus (Nees) (Hym., Braconidae), a parasitoid of the poplar twig borer, Gypsonoma aceriana (Dup.) (Lep., Tortricidae) in Bulgaria". Journal of Applied Entomology. 127 (2): 99–102. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0418.2003.00717.x. ISSN 1439-0418.
  14. ^ Sharkey, Michael (2006). "Two new genera of Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) with a key to the genera of the New World" (PDF). Zootaxa. 1185: 37–51. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1185.1.3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2017-06-14.
  15. ^ Sharkey, Michael J.; Baker, Austin; Manjunath, Ramya; Hebert, Paul D.N. (2022). "Description of Chilearinus Sharkey gen. nov. and status of Nearctic Earinus Wesmael, 1837 (Braconidae, Agathidinae) with the description of new species". ZooKeys (1099): 57–86. Bibcode:2022ZooK.1099...57S. doi:10.3897/zookeys.1099.81473. PMC 9848775. PMID 36761440.
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