The repression of January and February 1894 was an episode of the Era of Attacks (1892–1894), during which France engaged in significant state repression against anarchists. The passage of the lois scélérates ('villainous laws') in December 1893, following the National Assembly bombing, granted French political and police authorities extensive powers to combat anarchists. Using these laws, they launched a large-scale crackdown, employing both legal and extra-legal means to achieve their goals. Thousands of raids and arrests were carried out across France, including its colonies, anarchist newspapers were banned, and a nationwide 'manhunt for anarchists' was declared. The execution of Auguste Vaillant on 5 February 1894—after president Sadi Carnot refused to grant him his pardon—was a defining moment of this repression. It was the most severe repression in France since the Paris Commune (1871).  

Rather than stopping the attacks, this episode radicalized anarchists who evaded arrest—often the most dangerous ones—and drove them to seek revenge through further attacks. Figures like Émile Henry, Désiré Pauwels, and Célestin Nat responded with attacks of varying scope and intensity. On 24 June 1894, Sante Caserio assassinated Sadi Carnot in Lyon. This vicious circle of repression and retaliatory attacks began to draw criticism from some republicans, such as Georges Clemenceau, who brought attention to the issue.

While the repression had limited success for the authorities, the measures influenced other European states, such as Italy and Spain, which adopted similar policies, deporting or arresting thousands of anarchists.

History

Context

In the 19th century, anarchism emerged and took shape in Europe before spreading.[1] Anarchists advocated a struggle against all forms of domination perceived as unjust including economic domination brought forth by capitalism.[1] They were particularly opposed to the State, seen as the organization that legitimized these dominations through its police, army and propaganda.[2]

In France, relations between the authorities and anarchists grew tense due to the severe repression that anarchists faced in the 1880s.[3] After the Fourmies massacre and the Clichy affair (1891), a number of anarchists in France decided to engage in terrorist actions against those they held responsible for the repression they endured, launching the Era of Attacks (1892–1894).[4] One of the first terrorists of this period, who targeted the magistrates involved in the Clichy affair, François Koenigstein (Ravachol), was arrested and sent to the guillotine on 11 July 1892, transforming him into a martyr and hero of the anarchist cause.[5] In December 1893, Auguste Vaillant, seeking revenge for the misery he endured, carried out the National Assembly bombing, throwing a bomb into the chamber without causing any fatalities.[6][7].

Quickly arrested, this final attack served as a pretext[8] for French authorities to pass the first two lois scélérates ('vilainous laws')—a set of repressive laws later joined by a third in late summer 1894—explicitly targeting the anarchist movement.[8] These laws restricted freedom of speech, weakened the presumption of innocence, facilitated police raids, expanded state surveillance, and normalized preventive arrests.[8] Both the authorities and the French press widely promoted the idea that anarchists were part of a vast international conspiracy, using this narrative to justify their repression.[9][10]

Repression

During this 'hunt for anarchists',[11] the French authorities began compiling lists of individuals to be searched; in Paris alone, more than five hundred names appeared on the list of French anarchists, not including foreigners, who were placed on a separate list. The French Minister of the Interior, David Raynal, requested lists of all individuals who were friends or affiliates of anarchists, even if they were not anarchists themselves.[12] This marked the most repressive action taken by the French Republic since the Paris Commune (1871).[12]

The raids they were about to conduct could be conducted with illegal methods; authorities sometimes planted incriminating evidence in an anarchist’s home before conducting a raid the next morning, 'discovering' the planted evidence, and using it to convict their targets.[12]

1 and 2 January 1894

Part of the list of those raided in Paris, the list includes among others the Reclus brothers, Jean Grave, or Sébastien Faure in L'Estafette (2 January 1894).

On the night of 31 December to 1 January 1894, French police officers were ordered to be on standby. This date was chosen to catch the targeted anarchists off guard and prevent them from preparing for the searches.[13] To maintain the secrecy of the operation, each commissaire received a series of sealed envelopes at 4 A.M. containing the names of those to be raided.[13] They then opened them, took note of the names and addresses, and prepared to launch the operation, expecting to uncover large caches of weapons or explosives.[13]

At 6 A.M., the French police launched hundreds of raids targeting anarchists across France.[12] That day alone, a total of 552 raids were conducted,[12] including 50-60 in Paris.[13][14] The police raided the home of Élisée Reclus in Sèvres[13] and arrested his seventy years old[13] brother, Élie Reclus, in Paris, though he was released a few hours later. The fact that Reclus was targeted sparked outrage among part of the French intellectual world.[13] The police also raided Jean Grave or Sébastien Faure.[13][14]

On the same day, other cities were also searched. In Île-de-France, the police carried out similar operations in Puteaux, Nanterre, Courbevoie, Colombes, Sèvres, Asnières, Villeneuve-la-Garenne, and Levallois-Perret.[14][15] Dozens of searches were also conducted in Lyon and Nice, as well as in Colombier and Commentry in the Allier region.[14][15]

In Brest, as the raids began, the gendarmes surrounded Régis Meunier's residence with bayonets fixed.[14][15] They arrested seven anarchists—four men and three women—before releasing them later that day due to a lack of evidence.[14][15] In Rouen and its suburbs, the police carried out around thirty raids and arrested a militant for writing a letter of congratulations to Vaillant. Additionally, other raids took place in Saint-Quentin (25), Saintes (2), Roubaix, Montpellier, Cannes, Valence, Belfort, Montluçon, Saint-Étienne, Troyes, and other French cities.[14][15]

Alongside these raids, the police conducted dozens of arrests.[13][15] They arrested Louis Léveillé, one of those convicted and beaten in the Clichy affair, Achille Étiévant, Élisée Bastard, and the Dutchman Alexandre Cohen, who was deported.[12]

The results of the searches on 1 and 2 January 1894 were highly disappointing for the authorities.[13][14][15] Instead of uncovering large caches of weapons and explosives, the police found almost nothing in most cases.[13][14][15] Over the two days, they recovered only a few handguns and a canon shell.[13][14][15] Around sixty anarchists were arrested, but nearly all were released the same day due to the absence of incriminating evidence.[13][14][15] The operation appeared poorly planned. In one instance, police officers mistakenly raided the home of an undercover officer. He greeted his colleagues at the door with friendliness—only for them to arrest him anyway and figure their mistake late.[13]

Reaction of Le Révolté (6 January 1894) to the 1 January raids

Moreover, the searches inadvertently revealed to the anarchists the full list of individuals suspected by the police.[13]

Following and generalization of the repression

The crackdown extended to anarchists in French colonial territories; in Algeria, Paul Régnier, Jules Xixonnet, and other companions were arrested after protesting the police raid on the anarchist colony of Tarzout.[16] Various pretexts were used to justify arrests: one man was prosecuted for shouting 'Long live anarchy ! Long live Ravachol !' on charges of glorifying murder, while another received a two-year prison sentence for teaching anarchist theory to someone who later stole from his employer.[12] Some were arrested for their friendships with anarchists in sports associations, while others were detained simply for expressing sympathy toward anarchism.[12]

In total, 248 people were arrested in January, with 80 remaining in pre-trial detention for more than two months.[12]

The anarchist press was censored, first banned from kiosks. Émile Pouget, the founder of Le Père Peinard, managed to escape to the United Kingdom, but on 21 February 1894, the police imposed a complete ban on the newspaper.[12]

Meanwhile, Vaillant’s trial took place. In his defense, he condemned imperialism and the widespread poverty in French society, arguing that he had killed no one and had only sought to injure as a means of making the deputies aware of social injustices.[17] He was sentenced to death. His fate stirred emotions among the working-class population of Paris, who saw in him a man scarred by a life of misery and worried for his young daughter, Sidonie Vaillant.[17] Since most of those injured in the attack recovered quickly and had only suffered minor wounds, the possibility of granting him clemency was raised. His daughter wrote a letter to Cécile Carnot pleading for her father’s pardon, and later, a group of socialist deputies, joined by Georges Clemenceau, also appealed to president Sadi Carnot for clemency—without success.[17]

Vaillant was executed by guillotine on 5 February 1894.[17] He was the first person in 19th-century France to be executed without having killed anyone.[17] David Raynal triumphantly addressed the Chamber of Deputies, declaring that the lois scélérates had 'thrown terror into the anarchist camp'.[12]

Resume of attacks

Despite Raynal's statement, the severe repression of the anarchist movement led to the radicalization of several militants who managed to evade the French police and avoid arrest—often, the most radical anarchists were the very ones who succeeded in escaping.[12] Thus, Émile Henry, witnessing this situation unfold after his return to Paris on 18 December 1893, decided to avenge Vaillant by assassinating Sadi Carnot.[18]

Six days after Vaillant’s execution, Henry went near the Élysée Palace.[18] Seeing a strong police presence that made any action impossible, he instead chose to target the Café Terminus, where he threw a bomb into the crowd, killing one person and injuring 21.[18] This attack, considered a foundational act of modern terrorism because Henry no longer targeted individuals but society as a whole—perceived as an objective enemy[19]—was partially explained by Henry as an act of revenge for the repression suffered by anarchists.[20] During his trial, he declared:[20]

The bourgeoisie has made anarchists into a single bloc. [...] Well then! Since you hold an entire movement responsible for the acts of a single man and strike as a bloc, we too will strike as a bloc.

Two days later, the vicious circle of 'repression-attacks' was highlighted by republicans such as Georges Clemenceau, who questioned the effectiveness of such measures in combating terrorism on 14 February 1894.[19] He wrote, bringing the issue of political repression’s efficacy to public attention:[19]

Will executions and attacks succeed one another endlessly?

A friend of Henry, Désiré Pauwels, responded to Henry’s arrest by carrying out the 20 February and the Madeleine bombings.[21] Two days before Henry’s execution, Célestin Nat carried out the 1894 Marseille stabbing.[22] Finally, on 24 June 1894, Sante Caserio assassinated Sadi Carnot in Lyon.[23]

Legacy

In the following months, other European powers were influenced by this wave of police repression.[12] Inspired by France, Italy implemented similar measures in June 1894, deporting 3,000 anarchists to penal colonies, while hundreds fled into exile. Spain soon followed the same path.[12]

References

  1. ^ a b Jourdain 2013, p. 13-15.
  2. ^ Ward 2004, p. 26-33.
  3. ^ Bouhey 2009, p. 190-215.
  4. ^ Bouhey 2009, p. 215-220.
  5. ^ Piarotas 2000, p. 110-119.
  6. ^ Salomé 2021, p. 145-152.
  7. ^ Bouhey 2009, p. 275-278.
  8. ^ a b c Chambost 2017, p. 65-87.
  9. ^ Monier, Frédéric (1998). "3. Défense républicaine, défense sociale (1893-1906)". L'Espace de l'histoire (in French): 75–86. ISSN 1264-6105.
  10. ^ Bantman 2014, p. 54-57.
  11. ^ Salomé 2021, p. 151.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Merriman 2016, p. 139-144.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "Les anarchistes" [The anarchists]. La Dépêche. 3 January 1894. p. 2.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Deux mille perquisitions". L'Estafette: 2. 2 January 1894.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Une série générale de perquisitions : résultat négatif des recherches" [A general series of raids: negative results]. L'Éclair. 3 January 1894.
  16. ^ Bouba, Philippe (2014-12-17). L'Anarchisme en situation coloniale : le cas de l'Algérie. Organisations, militants et presse (1887-1962) (phdthesis thesis) (in French). Université de Perpignan ; Université Oran 1 (Algérie). p. 45.
  17. ^ a b c d e Merriman 2016, p. 144-146.
  18. ^ a b c Merriman 2016, p. 149-155.
  19. ^ a b c Ferragu 2019, p. 21-31.
  20. ^ a b Badier 2010, p. 164-171.
  21. ^ Merriman 2016, p. 167-181.
  22. ^ Bouhey 2009, p. 275-277.
  23. ^ Bouhey 2009, p. 294-298.

Bibliography

Allikas: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repression_of_January_and_February_1894
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