Not to be confused with Pahang Malay, the Malayic language spoken in Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia.

The Kuantan language (Kuantan: Bahaso Kuantan, Jawi: بهاسو كوانتان), also known as Rantau Kuantan, is a Malayic language primarily spoken by the Kuantan people, a subgroup of the Minangkabau people residing in Kuantan Singingi Regency, southwestern Riau, Indonesia. The classification of this language is disputed, with some considering it a dialect of Riau Malay and others of Minangkabau, due to its similarity to the Minangkabau spoken in neighboring West Sumatra. The Minangkabau community classifies Kuantan as a dialect of Minangkabau, while the vast majority of Kuantan speakers reject this and instead consider it a dialect of Riau Malay.[2] Indonesia’s Agency for Language Development and Cultivation, under the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, officially categorizes Kuantan as a Minangkabau dialect spoken in Riau,[3] though its classification is inconsistent, as it is also sometimes listed as a Malay dialect.[4] Nevertheless, the language bears a strong resemblance to Minangkabau, particularly in its phonology, grammar, and lexicon, and remains mutually intelligible with certain Minangkabau dialects.

The Kuantan language is an integral part of daily communication among the Kuantan people. It is also used in religious sermons, engagement ceremonies, and weddings, where traditional customs are expressed in the language.[5] Alongside Kuantan, Indonesian, the national language, is widely spoken within the Kuantan community. Indonesian is the primary language in official settings, such as government institutions and schools.[6] Most Kuantan people are bilingual in both Kuantan and Indonesian, using the latter as a lingua franca when communicating with non-Kuantan speakers. In semi-formal settings, such as markets, Kuantan people commonly engage in code-switching and code-mixing between Kuantan and Indonesian during conversations.[7] Even in schools, where Indonesian is the primary language of instruction, students often code-switch and code-mix between Kuantan and Indonesian when communicating with their peers and even with teachers.[8]

Classification

The classification of the Kuantan language remains disputed; however, it is generally recognized as a Malayic language. Speakers of Malayic languages are spread from Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand, to the southernmost part of the Philippines. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Ocean, with a smaller number in continental Asia. Malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although these languages are not necessarily mutually intelligible to any extent, their similarities are often quite apparent. In more conservative languages like Malay, many roots have come with relatively little change from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian. There are many cognates found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.[9]

The status of the Kuantan language remains a subject of debate. Most studies classify it as either a dialect of Riau Malay or Minangkabau. While the Minangkabau community considers the Kampar language a dialect of Minangkabau, this view is contested by most Kuantan speakers, who assert that it is a dialect of Malay.[2] The Indonesian government's classification of the Kuantan language is also inconsistent, sometimes labeling it as a dialect of either Minangkabau or Riau Malay. For example, in the book Struktur Bahasa Melayu Dialek Kuantan 'Structure of the Kuantan Malay Dialect', the Agency for Language Development and Cultivation, under the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, classifies it as a dialect of Malay.[1] Many studies and research also classifies the Kuantan language as a dialect of Riau Malay. Hamidy (2002) for example identified six dialects of Riau Malay, distinguished primarily by intonation and lexical differences:[10][11][12]

  • Dialect of isolated communities
  • Petalangan
  • Rokan
  • Rantau Kuantan
  • Kampar
  • Riau Coastal

However, many studies and censuses also classify the Kuantan language as a dialect of Minangkabau. For example, the 1930 Dutch-era census categorized the Koeantanners as Minangkabau.[13] Additionally, the 2017 book Bahasa dan Peta Bahasa di Indonesia (Languages and Language Maps in Indonesia), also published by the Agency for Language Development and Cultivation, classifies Kuantan as a Minangkabau dialect. According to the book, Kuantan is one of several Minangkabau dialects spoken in Riau, alongside Rokan, Basilam, Indragiri, and Kampar.[14] To this day, some studies continue to classify Kuantan as a dialect of Minangkabau.[15]

Regardless of its classification, the language spoken by the people of Kuantan Singingi Regency closely resembles Minangkabau spoken in neighboring West Sumatra. There are no communication barriers between Minangkabau speakers and the people of Kuantan Singingi, as both groups continue to maintain their respective linguistic identities in daily life.[16] Although the languages of these two communities, now separated by provincial boundaries, exhibit differences in phonology, morphology, and syntax, they remain highly mutually intelligible. These differences do not compel either group to alter their accent or dialect when interacting. In fact, some dialectal variations of the Kuantan language are identical or strikingly similar to certain Minangkabau dialects.[16]

Geographic distribution and usage

The Kuantan language is primarily spoken in Kuantan Singingi Regency in southwestern Riau, near the border with West Sumatra. In Kuantan Singingi, most of the local community uses the Kuantan language for daily communication. The Kuantan language is also used in religious teachings, engagement ceremonies, and weddings.[5] Their customary laws are conveyed in the Kuantan language. The Kuantan language also plays a vital role in preserving and promoting oral literature. As in other parts of Indonesia, oral traditions are deeply rooted in the Kuantan region, where proverbs and wise sayings have flourished.[6] In traditional ceremonies, these are conveyed through poetic exchanges and proverbial expressions, with the Kuantan language playing a central role. The most prominent art form is kayat, a style of singing accompanied by drums or tambourines, both traditional musical instruments of the Kuantan region. Kayat is performed during circumcision ceremonies, wedding celebrations, and pacu jalur festivals. Another traditional Kuantan art form is rarak, which features celempong, drums, and gongs.[6] During these ceremonies, Kuantan speakers would usually use a more literary variant of the language instead of the everyday colloquial form.[17]

Most people in Kuantan are bilingual, speaking both Kuantan and Indonesian. Many migrants who have settled in Kuantan have also become fluent in the Kuantan language, although the variety they speak is generally more influenced by Indonesian.[18] When interacting with other ethnic groups, the Kuantan people mostly use Indonesian, the national language and lingua franca, as a means of communication. Indonesian is the preferred language in official settings, such as government institutions and schools, while the Kuantan language is more commonly used in informal and semi-formal contexts. The Kuantan language is generally not used as the main language of instruction in schools; instead, Indonesian is used as the medium of instruction.[5] Despite this, students often code-switch or code-mix between Indonesian and Kuantan in schools, particularly when speaking with friends or even teachers.[8] A similar phenomenon can be observed in the market, where traders frequently code-switch between Kuantan and Indonesian when conversing with buyers.[7] Due to the growing use of Indonesian in the region, it is becoming increasingly common for the Kuantan people to code-mix between Indonesian and Kuantan, even during traditional Kuantan ceremonies.[19]

Dialects

The Kuantan language has several dialects, with four major ones: Baserah, spoken in the Kuantan Hilir district; Cerenti, spoken in the Cerenti district; Lubuk Jambi, spoken in the Kuantan Mudik district; and Taluk Kuantan, spoken in the Kuantan Tengah district.[20] The Taluk Kuantan dialect is considered the prestige dialect, as it is spoken in the regency capital of Kuantan Singingi. Each of these dialects has its own subdialects, which may exhibit slight variations in lexicon and phonology The phonological system of the dialects and isolects in Kuantan Singingi Regency is highly diverse. This is evident in the varied use of allophones or sound variants for a phoneme, which are consistently realized differently across isolects.[21] For example, one notable phonological difference is that some dialects use the vowel /e/, while others use /ɛ/ as an alternative realization of /e/.[22] However, these dialects are generally mutually intelligible, and most Kuantan speakers can understand one another, even when speaking different dialects.[23][20] Below are some lexical and phonological differences of some words across the various Kuantan dialects, along with the Indonesian and English translation:

Standard Indonesian Taluk Kuantan Lubuk Jambi Baserah Cerenti
saya

'I'

deyen, ambo, den ambo deyen, ambo den, ambo
dia

'he/she'

onyo, nyo, nye inyo enyo enyo
itu

'that'

iten itan itu eten
rumah

'house'

ruma ruma rumah ruma
bulan

'moon'

bulan bulan bulen bulan
rusa

'deer'

ruso kuso ruso kuso
sepuluh ribu

'ten thousand'

sapulua ribu sapulua kibu sapulua ribu sapulua kibu
ayam

'chicken'

anyam ayam ayom ayem
celana

'pants'

salowar lewou salowe salowe

Phonology

The Kuantan language, like many other regional languages in Indonesia, lacks a standardized phonological system. Nevertheless, many of the phonological system designed for the Kuantan language is loosely based on standard Indonesian orthography, especially the system created by the Indonesian Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology.

Vowels

The Kuantan language has six vowels. These vowels are /i/, /e/, /ə/, /a/, /u/, and /o/.[24] Some dialects of Kuantan also use the vowel /ɛ/ instead of /e/.[22]

Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e ə o
Open a

Notes:

  • In writing, /e/ and /ə/ are both represented as ⟨e⟩.

Consonants

The Kuantan language has 18 consonants.[25]

Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Plosive/

Affricate

voiceless p t t͡ʃ k ʔ
voiced b d d͡ʒ ɡ
Fricative voiceless s
voiced
Approximant w l j
Trill r

Notes:

  • In writing, the following phonemes are represented as thus:
    • /ŋ/ is ⟨ng⟩
    • /ɲ/ is ⟨ny⟩
    • /t͡ʃ/ is ⟨c⟩
    • /d͡ʒ/ is ⟨j⟩
    • /ʔ/ is ⟨k⟩
    • /j/ is ⟨y⟩

Diphthongs

The Kuantan language has a total of 10 diphthongs, which are used as follows:[26]

Diphthongs Middle Ending
/ua/ buruak 'bad' cilua 'stupid'
/ue/ buek 'to make' kue 'cake'
/uo/ suok 'to feed' tuo 'old'
/oi/ poi 'to go'
/ai/ main 'to play' corai 'divorce'
/ae/ laek 'very'
/ia/ biliak 'room' pilia 'to choose'
/ie/ liek 'to see'
/io/ rabio 'sago palm'
/ea/ leak 'soft'

Grammar

Main article: Malay grammar

Along with Minangkabau, Indonesian, Malay, and other related languages, the word order in the Kuantan language is typically subject-verb-object (SVO). While there are notable exceptions, the grammar structure of the Kuantan language shares many similarities with Indonesian and Malay.

Affixes

Similar to other Malayic languages, there are affixes in the Kuantan language. There are four types of affixes in the Kuantan language: prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and circumfixes. The table below provides examples of affixes used in the Kuantan language, along with their allomorphs, meanings, and usage:

Type of affixes Affixes Allomorphs Functions and meanings Example of basic word Example of derived word
Prefixes ma- man-, mang- many-, mam-, Used to form active verbs. It conveys the meaning of ‘performing the action expressed by the base word' the base word is a verb,[27] ‘making what is expressed by the base word', ‘placing or applying what is expressed by the base word', ‘using what is expressed by the base word', ‘using, playing, or displaying what is expressed by the base word', ‘heading toward or going through what is expressed by the base word', ‘eating, inhaling, or drinking what is expressed by the base word', or ‘seeking or collecting what is expressed by the base word' if the base word is a noun,[27] ‘making or becoming what is expressed by the base word' if the base word is an adjective, ‘becoming’ or ‘commemorating' if the base word is a numeral, and ‘saying what is expressed by the base word' if the base word is a pronoun.[27] kopi 'coffee' mangopi 'to have a coffee'
di- none Used to form passive verbs. It conveys the meaning of ‘expressing intentionality’ or ‘indicating that something is in progress' if the base word is an active verb.[28] makan 'to eat' dimakan 'to be eaten'
ta- none Used to form passive verbs. It conveys the meaning of ‘unintentional action,’ ‘performing the activity expressed by the base word,’ or ‘most’ if the base word is an active verb.[29] rancak 'pretty' tarancak 'prettiest'
pa- pan-, pang-, pany-, pam- Used to form nouns or verbs. It conveys the meaning of ‘a person who frequently enjoys performing the activity expressed by the base word’, ‘a tool for performing the activity', or ‘a measure (size, distance, area) as expressed by the base word’ if the base word is a verb and ‘a person who has the characteristic expressed by the base form’ or ‘enhancing the quality expressed by the base form’ if the base word is an adjective.[30] tiduar 'to sleep' paniduar 'sleepy head'
ba- none Used to form intransitive verbs. It conveys the meaning of ‘making, becoming, having, or using’ if the base word is a noun and ‘performing the action expressed by the base word’ if the base word is a verb.[31] musua 'enemy' bamusua 'to become enemy'
sa- none The prefix sa- can be attached to verbs, adjectives, prepositions, and nouns. Its core meaning is ‘one.’ From this core meaning, its usage expands to convey different nuances: ‘the entire content’ when the base word is a noun, ‘in accordance with’ or ‘after’ when the base word is a verb, and ‘the same as’ or ‘intensifying the meaning’ when the base word is an adjective.[32] kampuang 'village' sakampuang 'the whole village'
Suffixes -an none Used to form nouns. It conveys the meaning of ‘the result of an action being performed as expressed by the base word’. or ‘the result of an action being received as expressed by the base word’, ‘a place associated with what is expressed by the base word’, or ‘something that can undergo the action expressed by the base word’. (i.e., something affected by what is expressed by the base word), or ‘a tool used to perform the action expressed by the base word’. if the base word is a verb. If the base word is an adjective, it means ‘something that possesses the stated quality’.[33] pakai 'wear' pakaian 'clothes'
-i none Used to form imperative verbs. It conveys the meaning of expressing an action if the base word is a verb.[34] pogang 'to hold' pongangi 'to hold something'
Infixes -al- none These infixes form new words that do not differ in part of speech from the base form. They convey the meaning of 'many and various' or 'the one who performs' if the base word is a noun, and indicate intensity if the base word is an adjective.[35] torang 'bright' tamorang 'very bright'
-am- none tali 'rope' tamali 'many ropes'
Circumfixes ka-...-an none Used to form nouns. It conveys the meaning of an event or occurrence if the base word is a verb, forming an abstract noun that refers to something related to the base word if the base word is an adjective, and a collection or group that results from what is expressed by the base word if the base word is a numeral.[36] barani 'brave' kabaranian 'bravery'
pa-...-an pan-, pang-, pany-, pam- Used to form nouns. It conveys the meaning of indicating a place to perform the action expressed by the base word if the base word is a noun or verb, and expressing the act of doing what is stated by the base word if the base word is a verb or adjective.[37] labua 'to dock' palabuan 'port'

Reduplication

As in other Malayic languages, the Kuantan language uses reduplication. Reduplication in the Kuantan language can occur through full reduplication of the base form or reduplication with affixation.[38]

Full reduplication involves the complete repetition of the base form. When the base form is a noun, it indicates plurality. When it is a verb, it expresses an action done carelessly. When it is an adjective, it conveys intensity. When it is a numeral, it signifies a collective group.[39] Reduplication with affixation occurs in verbs, adjectives, and numerals, and its function is closely tied to the grammatical category of the base form. In verbs, it indicates a continuous action and can also express reciprocity. In adjectives, it conveys a superlative meaning. In numerals, it signifies the entirety of what is represented by the base form.[40]

Examples of full reduplication are shown below:

  • sayuar 'vegetable' → sayuar-sayuar 'many vegetables'
  • lari 'to run' → lari-lari 'to run around carelessly'
  • ketek 'small' → ketek-ketek 'small things'
  • duo 'two' → duo-duo 'groups of two'

Examples of affixed reduplication are shown below:

  • ganti 'to change' → baganti-ganti 'to change multiple times'
  • dokek 'close' → badokek-dokek 'to be close to each other'
  • putia 'white' → saputia-putianyo 'as white as possible'
  • limo 'five' → kalimo-limonyo 'all five'

Nouns

Nouns in the Kuantan language consist of basic nouns and affixed nouns. Basic nouns stand alone and are not derived from other words. Affixed nouns, on the other hand, are formed by adding prefixes, suffixes, or circumfixes to words from different classes, such as verbs or adjectives. These affixes modify the meaning of the root word, allowing for the creation of new nouns with specific meanings.

Examples of basic nouns are shown below:

  • bosi 'iron'
  • mato 'eye'
  • muko 'face'
  • toluar 'egg'

Examples of affixed nouns are shown below:

  • makan 'to eat' + -an → makanan 'food'
  • main 'to play' + -an → mainan 'toy'
  • pa- + torang 'bright' + -an → panorangan 'lighting'
  • ke- + bodo 'stupid' + -an → kebodoan 'stupidity'

Verbs

Verbs in the Kuantan language also consist of basic verbs and affixed verbs. Basic verbs stand alone and do not require additional elements. Affixed verbs, on the other hand, are formed by adding affixes to words from different classes, such as nouns or adjectives, to create new verb forms. Common affixes used to form verbs in Kuantan include ma-, di-, ta-, pa-, ba-, and -i. Verbs can also be divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs.[41]

Examples of basic verbs are shown below:

  • jalan 'to walk'
  • jumpo 'to meet'
  • gantuang 'to hang'
  • bao 'to bring'

Examples of affixed verbs are shown below:

  • pa- + lebar 'wide' → palebar 'to widen'
  • ba- + kawan 'friend' → bakawan 'to become friends'
  • di- + sayang 'to love' + -i → disayangi 'to be loved'
  • ka- + tiduar 'to sleep' + -an → katiduaran 'to fell asleep by accident'

Adjectives

In the Kuantan language, adjectives can be modified with intensifiers like bonar ‘very’.[42] Examples of adjectives are shown below:

  • rancak 'pretty'
  • panjang 'long'
  • ronda 'low'
  • godang 'big'

Numerals

In the Kuantan language, numerals are typically followed by classifiers.[43] The following are examples:

  • sabua toluar 'an egg'
  • limo bua pisang 'five bananas'
  • duo ikuar ikan 'two fishes'
  • sapucuak surek 'a letter'

Vocabulary

Much of the vocabulary in the Kuantan language is derived from Minangkabau. Although there are some variations compared to the Minangkabau spoken in West Sumatra, speakers of both languages can still understand each other due to their shared vocabulary.[16] Due to Indonesian's status as the national and official language of education, the Kuantan language has increasingly absorbed loanwords from Indonesian, similar to other regional languages across Indonesia.[19] This has led to code-mixing, where Indonesian and Kuantan words are used together in conversation depending on the context. However, the growing influence of Indonesian poses a threat, as many traditional Kuantan words are gradually being replaced by their Indonesian equivalents. The table below provides examples of common Kuantan vocabulary used on a daily basis along with their standard Minangkabau, Indonesian, and English equivalents.

Numerals

Number Kuantan Minangkabau Indonesian English
1 ciek, oso ciek, satu, aso satu one
2 duo duo dua two
3 tigo tigo tiga three
4 ompek ampek empat four
5 limo limo lima five
6 onam anam enam six
7 tujua tujuah tujuh seven
8 lapan lapan delapan eight
9 sambilan sambilan sembilan nine
10 sapulua sapuluah sepuluh ten
11 sabole sabaleh sebelas eleven
20 duo pulua duo puluah dua puluh twenty
50 limo pulua limo puluah lima puluh fifty
100 saratui saratuih seratus one hundred
500 limo ratui limo ratuih lima ratus five hundred
1000 saribu saribu seribu one thousand
5000 limo ribu limo ribu lima ribu five thousand
100,000 saratui ribu saratuih ribu seratus ribu one hundred thousand
1,000,000 sajuta, salaso sajuta sejuta, satu juta one million

Directions

Kuantan Minangkabau Indonesian English
iko iko ini this
itu itu itu that
siko siko sini here
sinan, situ sinan situ there (close)
sinan, keen, kien sinan sana there (far)
disiko disiko disini over here
disinan, disitu disinan disitu over there (close)
disinan disinan disana over there (far)
ate ateh atas up
bawa bawah bawah down
utaro utaro utara north
salatan salatan selatan south
timuar timur timur east
barat barat, baraik barat west

Personal Pronouns

Kuantan Minangkabau Indonesian English
ambo, den, deyen ambo, awak, aden aku, saya I, me
kau, awak, tuan, aang ang, waang, awak, kau kamu, engkau you (informal)
kalian kalian kalian you (prural)
onyo, nyo, enyo, inyo inyo, wakno, ano dia he/she
kami, awak awak, kami kami we (exclusive)
kito, awak kito kita we (inclusive)
rang di urang-urang, urang tu mereka they/them

Interrogatives Pronouns

Kuantan Minangkabau Indonesian English
sapo, siapo sia, siapo siapa who
apo a, apo apa what
mangapo mangapo, manga, dek a kenapa, mengapa why
dimano dimano, dima mana, dimana where
bilo bilo kapan when
baapo bagaimano, ba a gimana, bagaimana how
barapo bara berapa how much
bilo, kalau bilo, pabilo, kalau bila, apabila, kalau if

Nouns

Kuantan Minangkabau Indonesian English
ayier aie, aia air water
batang pohon pohon tree
sungai sungai, sei, batang aia sungai river
lauik lauik laut sea
pantai pantai pantai beach
laki, jantan lalaki pria, laki-laki man
batino padusi wanita, perempuan woman
tana tanah tanah land, ground, soil
gunuang gunuang gunung mountain
pasier pasia pasir sand
jalan jalan jalan road
kudo kudo kuda horse
manso, kondiak babi babi pig
anjiang anjiang anjing dog
ikan, lauak ikan, lauak ikan fish
anak anak anak child, kid
bungo bungo bunga flower
daun daun daun leaf
kulik kulik kulit skin
ikuar ikua ekor tail
talingo talingo telinga ear
kapalo kapalo kepala head
lihiar lihia, lihie leher neck
ati ati hati heart
muncuang muluik, muncuang mulut mouth
iduang iduang hidung nose
obuak abuak, rambuik rambut hair
balobek jandela jendela window
pintu pintu pintu door
atok atok atap roof

Verbs

Kuantan Minangkabau Indonesian English
makan makan, sungkah makan eat
minum minum, minun minum drink
lari, kojar lari lari run
cakap, kecek, cakok kecek bicara to talk
masak masak masak to cook
masuak masuak masuk to enter
kaluar kalua keluar to exit
togak tagak, badiri berdiri to stand
duduak duduak duduk to sit
tarobang tabang terbang to fly
liek, tengok, pandang, coliak liek, caliak lihat, tengok see
bayiwer baia bayar pay
bamain bamain bermain to play
ambiak ambiak ambil take
boli bali beli buy
jual jua jual sell
logu, dendang, nandong lagu, nyanyi nyanyi to sing
tiduar lalok, tidua tidur to sleep
tibo tibo tiba to arrive
poi pai pergi to go
bori, kasia bari beri, kasih to give
dongar danga dengar to listen
omua amuah mau to want

Adjectives

Kuantan Minangkabau Indonesian English
kayo kayo kaya rich
rancak rancak bagus, baik good
buruak buruak buruk bad
pandai pandai pandai smart
cilua ongok, pakak, tea bodoh stupid
sonang sanang senang happy
sodia, ibo, ebo, duko rusuah, sadiah sedih sad
bosar, godang gadang besar, gede big, large
ketek, kenek ketek, kaciak kecil small
panjang panjang panjang long
pendek pendek pendek short
tenggi tinggi tinggi tall
bulek bulek bundar round
pane, angek paneh, angek panas hot
dingin, sojuak dingin, sajuak dingin, sejuk cold
mania manih, kamek manis sweet
torang tarang terang bright
golo kalam gelap dark
lowe laweh luas wide
sompit sampik sempit narrow
borek barek berat heavy
koriang kariang kering dry
baru baru baru new
lamo lamo lama long (time), old
copek capek cepat quick
samo samo sama same
sakik sakik sakit sick
banyak banyak, rami banyak many
seenek, sangenek, saketek saketek sedikit little

Writing system

Like other Malayic languages, the Kuantan language was historically written in Jawi, a modified form of the Arabic script locally known as Arab-Melayu 'Arab-Malay'. The Jawi script played a significant role in religious and cultural traditions in Kuantan Singingi, particularly in the writing of poetry and traditional stories. One notable example is Kayat, a traditional oral performance art of the Kuantan community that conveys folk tales through poetic forms such as pantun, syair, and rhythmic prose with strong Islamic influences.[44] Originally written in Jawi, Kayat was later transcribed and reinterpreted by knowledgeable individuals or religious scholars skilled in chanting, reinforcing its association with both religious understanding and artistic appreciation.[44] Jawi was also used for communication between traditional Malay kingdoms in Kuantan Singingi and traditional institutions (lembaga adat). For example, the Pagaruyung Kingdom in West Sumatra historically used the Jawi script to correspond with its protectorates in Kuantan.[45] The use of Jawi declined significantly with the arrival of Dutch colonization, as the Latin script was introduced and gradually became dominant. This decline continued into the present day with the adoption of Indonesian as the official language and the primary medium of education, both of which are written in the Latin script.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Ruswan et al. 1986, p. 8.
  2. ^ a b Saputra 2007, p. 4.
  3. ^ Sugono, Dendy; Sasangka, S. S. T. Wisnu; Rivay, Ovi Soviaty (2017). Bahasa dan peta bahasa di Indonesia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
  4. ^ Balai Bahasa Pekanbaru Riau (Indonesia), ed. (2010). Persebaran dan kekerabatan bahasa-bahasa di Provinsi Riau dan Kepulauan Riau (in Indonesian) (1st ed.). Simpang Baru, Tampan, Pekanbaru: Balai Bahasa Provinsi Riau bekerjasama dengan Penerbit dan Percetakan Gama Media. ISBN 978-979-1104-46-3.
  5. ^ a b c Ruswan et al. 1986, p. 9-10.
  6. ^ a b c Ruswan et al. 1986, p. 10.
  7. ^ a b Fauzi, Rian Azmul; Tressyalina, Tressyalina (2021-01-12). "Alih Kode dan Campur Kode dalam Transaksi antara Penjual dan Pembeli di Pasar Modern Teluk Kuantan, Riau". Kajian Linguistik dan Sastra. 5 (2): 113–122. doi:10.23917/kls.v5i2.11000. ISSN 2541-2558.
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Bibliography

Allikas: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuantan_language
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