For broader coverage of this topic, see Metre.

An early definition of the metre was one ten-millionth of the Earth quadrant, the distance from the North Pole to the Equator, measured along a meridian through Paris.

During French Revolution, the the traditional units of measure were to be replaced by consistent measures based on natural phenomena. As a base unit of length, scientists had favoured the seconds pendulum (a pendulum with a half-period of one second) one century earlier, but this was rejected as it had been discovered that this length varied from place to place with local gravity. A new unit of length, the metre was introduced – defined as one ten-millionth of the shortest distance from the North Pole to the equator passing through Paris, assuming an Earth flattening of ⁠1/334⁠.

The historical French official standard of the metre was made available in the form of the Mètre des Archives, a platinum bar held in Paris. During the mid nineteenth century, following the American Revolution and independence of Latin America, the metre gained adoption in Americas, particularly in scientific usage, and it was officially established as an international measurement unit by the Metre Convention of 1875 at the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution.

The Mètre des Archives and its copies such as the Committee Meter were replaced from 1889 at the initiative of the International Geodetic Association by thirty platinum-iridium bars kept across the globe.[1] A better standardisation of the new prototypes of the metre and their comparison with each other and with the historical standard involved the development of specialised measuring equipment and the definition of a reproducible temperature scale.[2]

Progress in science finally allowed the definition of the metre to be dematerialised; thus in 1960 a new definition based on a specific number of wavelengths of light from a specific transition in krypton-86 allowed the standard to be universally available by measurement. In 1983 this was updated to a length defined in terms of the speed of light; this definition was reworded in 2019:[3]

The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458 when expressed in the unit m⋅s−1, where the second is defined in terms of the caesium frequency ΔνCs.

Where older traditional length measures are still used, they are now defined in terms of the metre – for example the yard has since 1959 officially been defined as exactly 0.9144 metre.[4]

Background

Giovanni Domenico Cassini, with the Paris Observatory in the background

Metre Convention of 1875 that defined the metre was the culmination of an proposal that began during the French Revolution. That proposal grew out of social historical towards universal measurement, technology of length measurement, and scientific organisations emerging in France focused on map making and geodesy.

Universal measurement

Main article: History_of_measurement § Units_of_length

Before the establishment of the decimal metric system in France during the French Revolution in the late 18th century,[5] many units of length were based on parts of the human body.[6][7] Units in use varied by location and the advantages of the decimal system were known only among scientists. Efforts to standardise measurements can be traced back at least as far as the 10th century Saxon king Edgar in England.[8]: 73  These efforts continued in the United Kingdom culminating in the Imperial system of measurement established by the Weights and Measures Act 1824. British exploration and colonisation and trade spread these standard but not decimal units worldwide.[8]: 78 

Using a decimal scale for measurements was proposed by Simon Stevin, a Flemish mathematician in 1586. Proposals for decimal measurement systems from scientists and mathematicians also lead to proposals to base units on reproducible natural phenomena, such as the motion of a pendulum or a fraction of a meridian.[8]: 85 

The seconds pendulum

Galileo discovered gravitational acceleration explaining the fall of bodies at the surface of the Earth.[9] He also observed the regularity of the period of swing of the pendulum and that this period depended on the length of the pendulum.[10] In 1645 Giovanni Battista Riccioli was the first to determine the length of a "seconds pendulum" (a pendulum with a half-period of one second).[11][Note 1] In 1671, Jean Picard also measured the length of a seconds pendulum at Paris Observatory and proposed this unit of measurement to be called the astronomical radius (French: Rayon Astronomique).[12][13][14] He found the value of 36 pouces and 8 ⁠1/2⁠ lignes of the Toise of Châtelet, which had been recently renewed.[14][15][16]

In 1675, Tito Livio Burattini suggested the term metro cattolico meaning universal measure for the unit of length based on the seconds pendulum.[17] French astronomer Jean Richer discovered that a length derived from a seconds pendulum varies from place to place: had measured the 0.28% difference in length between Cayenne (in French Guiana) and Paris.[18][14]

Astronomy, physics and map making

Cassini's Earth ellipsoid; Huygens' theoretical Earth ellipsoid
Repeating circle devised by Jean-Charles de Borda and constructed by Étienne Lenoir

The French Academy of Sciences, responsible for the concept and definition of the metre,[17] was established in 1666 and in the 18th century it organised important work in determining the first reasonably accurate distance to the Sun, geodesy and cartography.[19] Among the results that would impact the definition of the metre: Earth proved to be an oblate spheroid through geodetic surveys in Ecuador and Lapland.[20] That demonstrated Newton's law of universal gravitation.[21]

Geodetic surveys found practical applications in French cartography and in the Anglo-French Survey, which aimed to connect Paris and Greenwich Observatories and led to the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain.[22][23] The unit of length used by the French was the Toise de Paris, while the English one was the yard, which became the geodetic unit used in the British Empire.[24][25][26]

French revolution

Pantheon of Paris, France. At the time of Delambre, it served as a warehouse for all the old weights and measures which were sent by towns throughout France in anticipation of the standardisation of weights and measures by the establishment of the new decimal metric system.[27]

Despite scientific progresses in the field of geodesy, little practical advance was made towards the establishment of the "universal measure" until the French Revolution of 1789. France was particularly affected by the proliferation of length measures; the conflicts related to units helped precipitate the revolution.[8]: 86  In addition to rejecting standards created by the French royal establishment, basing units on fundamental physicals properties was an explicit goal.[8]: 111  This effort culminated in an extravagant effort to measure the meridian passing through Paris in order to define the metre.[28]: 52 

Meridional definition

See also: Earth's circumference § Historical use in the definition of units of measurement, and Meridian arc § History of measurement
A copy of the "provisional" metre located in the wall of a building, 15 rue de Vaugirard, Paris.[29]

The question of measurement reform was placed in the hands of the French Academy of Sciences, who appointed a commission chaired by Jean-Charles de Borda. Talleyrand resurrected the idea of the seconds pendulum before the Constituent Assembly in 1790, suggesting that the new measure be defined at 45°N (a latitude that, in France, runs just north of Bordeaux and just south of Grenoble): despite the support of the Assembly, nothing came of Talleyrand's proposal.[30] Instead of the seconds pendulum method, the commission of the French Academy of Sciences – whose members included Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge and Condorcet – decided that the new measure should be equal to one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator (the quadrant of the Earth's circumference), measured along the meridian passing through Paris at the longitude of Paris pantheon, which became the central geodetic station in Paris.[31][32]

To put into practice the decision taken by the National Convention, on 1 August 1793, to disseminate the new units of the decimal metric system,[33] it was decided to establish the length of the metre based on a fraction of the meridian in the process of being measured. The decision was taken to fix the length of a metre determined by the measurement of the Meridian of France from Dunkirk to Collioure, which, in 1740, had been carried out by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille and Cesar-François Cassini de Thury. The length of the metre was established, in relation to the toise of the Academy also called toise of Peru, at 3 feet 11.44 lines, taken at 13 degrees of the temperature scale of René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur in use at the time.[5] This value was set by legislation on 7 April 1795.[33] It was therefore metal bars of 443.44 lignes that were distributed in France in 1795-1796.[34] These metres were provisional (French: provisoire) because the expedition and the calculations to determine the definitive length of metre were not completed until 1799.[35][5]

The definitive length of the Mètre des Archives required a value for the non-spherical shape of the Earth, known as the flattening of the Earth. The Weights and Measures Commission would, in 1799, adopt a flattening of based on analysis by Pierre-Simon Laplace who combined the arc of Peru and the data of the meridian arc of Delambre and Méchain.[35] Combining these two data sets Laplace succeeded to estimate the flattening anew and was happy to find the suitable value ⁠1/334⁠. It also fitted well with his estimate ⁠1/336⁠ based on 15 pendulum measurements.[21]

Early adoption of the metre

Historic Dutch replicas of metric standards in the collection of Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam: iron metre with case constructed by Étienne Lenoir in 1799, copper grave kilogram with case (1798), copper volume measures (1829)

At that time, units of measurement were defined by primary standards, and unique artifacts made of different alloys with distinct coefficients of expansion were the legal basis of units of length. A wrought iron ruler, the Toise of Peru, also called Toise de l'Académie, was the French primary standard of the toise, and the metre was officially defined by an artifact made of platinum kept in the National Archives.[36] Besides the latter, another platinum and twelve iron standards of the metre were made by Étienne Lenoir in 1799.[37] One of them became known as the Committee Meter in the United States and served as standard of length in the United States Coast Survey until 1890.[38] According to geodesists, these standards were secondary standards deduced from the Toise of Peru. In Europe, except Spain,[39] surveyors continued to use measuring instruments calibrated on the Toise of Peru.[40] Among these, the toise of Bessel and the apparatus of Borda were respectively the main references for geodesy in Prussia and in France. These measuring devices consisted of bimetallic rulers in platinum and brass or iron and zinc fixed together at one extremity to assess the variations in length produced by any change in temperature. The combination of two bars made of two different metals allowed to take thermal expansion into account without measuring the temperature.[41][42] A French scientific instrument maker, Jean Nicolas Fortin, made three direct copies of the Toise of Peru, one for Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, a second for Heinrich Christian Schumacher in 1821 and a third for Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel in 1823. In 1831, Henri-Prudence Gambey also realised a copy of the Toise of Peru which was kept at Altona Observatory.[37][43]

Triangulation near New York City, 1817

In 1816, Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler was appointed first Superintendent of the Survey of the Coast.[44][45] Trained in geodesy in Switzerland, France and Germany, Hassler had brought a standard metre made in Paris to the United States in October 1805. He designed a baseline apparatus which instead of bringing different bars in actual contact during measurements,[45] used only one bar calibrated on the Committee meter, an authenthic copy of the Mètre des Archives,[38][25] and optical contact.[45][46] Thus the metre became the unit of length for geodesy in the United States.[47] This would result in the Metre Convention of 1875, when the metre was adopted as an international scientific unit of length for the convenience of continental European geodesists following forerunners such as Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler later Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero.[48][39][49][50][47][51][5]

In 1830, Hassler became head of the Office of Weights and Measures, which became a part of the Survey of the Coast. He compared various units of length used in the United States at that time and measured coefficients of expansion to assess temperature effects on the measurements.[52]

In 1834, Hassler, measured at Fire Island the first baseline of the Survey of the Coast,[53] shortly before Louis Puissant declared to the French Academy of Sciences in 1836 that Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Méchain had made errors in the meridian arc measurement, which had been used to determine the length of the metre.[54][55]

Egyptian astronomy has ancient roots which were revived in the 19th century by the modernist impetus of Muhammad Ali who founded in Sabtieh, Boulaq district, in Cairo an Observatory which he was keen to keep in harmony with the progress of this science still in progress.[56][57] In 1858, a Technical Commission was set up to continue, by adopting the procedures instituted in Europe, the cadastre work inaugurated under Muhammad Ali. This Commission suggested to Viceroy Mohammed Sa'id Pasha the idea of buying geodetic devices which were ordered in France. While Mahmud Ahmad Hamdi al-Falaki was in charge, in Egypt, of the direction of the work of the general map, the viceroy entrusted to Ismail Mustafa al-Falaki the study, in Europe, of the precision apparatus calibrated against the metre intended to measure the geodesic bases and already built by Jean Brunner in Paris. Ismail Mustafa had the task to carry out the experiments necessary for determining the expansion coefficients of the two platinum and brass bars, and to compare the Egyptian standard with a known standard. The Spanish standard designed by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero and Frutos Saavedra Meneses was chosen for this purpose, as it had served as a model for the construction of the Egyptian standard.[57][56] In addition, the Spanish standard had been compared with Borda's double-toise N° 1, which served as a comparison module for the measurement of all geodesic bases in France,[58][59] and was also to be compared to the Ibáñez apparatus.[60][58] In 1954, the connection of the southerly extension of the Struve Geodetic Arc with an arc running northwards from South Africa through Egypt would bring the course of a major meridian arc back to land where Eratosthenes had founded geodesy.[61]

International prototype metre

The motto ΜΕΤΡΩ ΧΡΩ (metro chro) in the seal of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), which was approved by Adolphe Hirsch on 11 July 1875, may be translated as "Keep the measure". It emphasised the role of the organisation in the preservation of the International Prototypes. It outlined principles of neutrality, fairness, and impartiality, that still underpin the principles of the BIPM today.[62]

After the French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars led to the adoption of the metre in Latin America following independence of Brazil and Hispanic America, while the American Revolution prompted the foundation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 and the creation of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures in 1830. During the mid-19th century, following the defeat and expulsion of Napoleon Bonaparte's forces which brought an end to the short-lived French occupation of Lower Egypt, the metre was adopted in Khedivate of Egypt an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire for the cadastre work.[63][64][65] In continental Europe, metrication and a better standardisation of units of measurement respectively followed the successive fall of First French Empire in 1815 and Second French Empire defeated in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871). Napoleonic Wars fostered German nationalism which later led to unification of Germany in 1871. Meanwhile most European countries had adopted the metre. The 1870s marked the beginning of the Technological Revolution a period in which German Empire would challenge Britain as the foremost industrial nation in Europe. This was accompanied by development in cartography which was a prerequisite for both military operations and the creation of the infrastructures needed for industrial development such as railways. During the process of unification of Germany, geodesists called for the establishment of an International Bureau for Weights and Measures in Europe.[66][51]

The intimate relationships that necessarily existed between metrology and geodesy explain that the International Association of Geodesy, founded to combine the geodetic operations of different countries, in order to reach a new and more exact determination of the shape and dimensions of the Globe, prompted the project of reforming the foundations of the metric system, while expanding it and making it international. Not, as it was mistakenly assumed for a certain time, that the Association had the unscientific thought of modifying the length of the metre, in order to conform exactly to its historical definition according to the new values that would be found for the terrestrial meridian. But, busy combining the arcs measured in the different countries and connecting the neighbouring triangulations, geodesists encountered, as one of the main difficulties, the unfortunate uncertainty which reigned over the equations of the units of length used. Adolphe Hirsch, General Baeyer and Colonel Ibáñez decided, in order to make all the standards comparable, to propose to the Association to choose the metre for geodetic unit, and to create an international prototype metre differing as little as possible from the mètre des Archives.[67]

Ibáñez apparatus calibrated on the metric Spanish standard and used at Aarberg, in canton of Bern, Switzerland in 1880.[68]

In 1855, the Dufour map (French: Carte Dufour), the first topographic map of Switzerland for which the metre was adopted as the unit of length, won the gold medal at the Exposition Universelle.[69][70] However, the baselines for this map were measured in 1834 with three toises long measuring rods calibrated on a toise made in 1821 by Jean Nicolas Fortin for Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve.[71][26] The Spanish standard, a geodetic measuring device calibrated on the metre devised by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero and Frutos Saavedra Meneses, was also displayed by Jean Brunner at the Exhibition.[72][73] On the sidelines of the Exposition Universelle (1855) and the second Congress of Statistics held in Paris, an association with a view to obtaining a uniform decimal system of measures, weights and currencies was created in 1855.[40] Under the impetus of this association, a Committee for Weights and Measures and Monies (French: Comité des poids, mesures et monnaies) would be created during the Exposition Universelle (1867) in Paris and would call for the international adoption of the metric system.[74][40]

In the second half of the 19th century, the creation of the International Geodetic Association would mark the adoption of new scientific methods which allowed to take into account observational errors in science.[75][66][76][need quotation to verify][77] It then became possible to accurately measure parallel arcs, since the difference in longitude between their ends could be determined thanks to the invention of the electrical telegraph.[78] Furthermore, advances in metrology combined with those of gravimetry have led to a new era of geodesy. If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy, the latter could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology. It was then necessary to define a single unit to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs and all determinations of the gravitational acceleration by means of pendulum.[79]

In 1866, an important concern was that the Toise of Peru, the standard of the toise constructed in 1735 for the French Geodesic Mission to the Equator, might be so much damaged that comparison with it would be worthless,[78] while Bessel had questioned the accuracy of copies of this standard belonging to Altona and Koenigsberg Observatories, which he had compared to each other about 1840.[80][37] This assertion was particularly worrying, because when the primary Imperial yard standard had partially been destroyed in 1834, a new standard of reference was constructed using copies of the "Standard Yard, 1760", instead of the pendulum's length as provided for in the Weights and Measures Act 1824,[81] because the pendulum method proved unreliable.[82][83] Nevertheless Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler's use of the metre and the creation of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures as an office within the Coast Survey contributed to the introduction of the Metric Act of 1866 allowing the use of the metre in the United States,[84] and preceded the choice of the metre as international scientific unit of length and the proposal by the 1867 General Conference of the European Arc Measurement (German: Europäische Gradmessung) to establish the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.[51][85]

In 1867 at the second General Conference of the International Association of Geodesy held in Berlin, the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth.[86][87] According to a preliminary proposal made in Neuchâtel the precedent year,[88][86] the General Conference recommended the adoption of the metre in replacement of the toise of Bessel,[87][89] the creation of an International Metre Commission, and the foundation of a World institute for the comparison of geodetic standards, the first step towards the creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.[88][86]

Hassler's metrological and geodetic work also had a favourable response in Russia.[52][45] In 1869, the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences sent to the French Academy of Sciences a report drafted by Otto Wilhelm von Struve, Heinrich von Wild, and Moritz von Jacobi, whose theorem has long supported the assumption of an ellipsoid with three unequal axes for the figure of the Earth, inviting his French counterpart to undertake joint action to ensure the universal use of the metric system in all scientific work.[82][90] The French Academy of Sciences and the Bureau des Longitudes in Paris drew the attention of the French government to this issue. In November 1869, Napoleon III issued invitations to join the International Metre Commission.[74]

The French government gave practical support to the creation of an International Metre Commission, which met in Paris in 1870 and again in 1872 with the participation of about thirty countries.[91][74] There was much discussion within this Commission, considering the opportunity either to keep as definitive the units represented by the standards of the Archives, or to return to the primitive definitions, and to correct the units to bring them closer to them. Since its origin, the metre has kept a double definition; it is both the ten-millionth part of the quarter meridian and the length represented by the Mètre des Archives. The first is historical, the second is metrological. The first solution prevailed, in accordance with common sense and in accordance with the advice of the French Academy of Sciences. Abandoning the values represented by the standards, would have consecrated an extremely dangerous principle, that of the change of units to any progress of measurements; the Metric System would be perpetually threatened with change, that is to say with ruin. Thus the Commission called for the creation of a new international prototype metre which length would be as close as possible to that of the Mètre des Archives and the arrangement of a system where national standards could be compared with it.[92]

Creating the metre-alloy in 1874 at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. Present Henri Tresca, George Matthey, Saint-Claire Deville, and Debray

On 6 May 1873 during the 6th session of the French section of the Metre Commission, Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville cast a 20-kilogram platinum-iridium ingot from Matthey in his laboratory at the École normale supérieure (Paris). On 13 May 1874, 250 kilograms of platinum-iridium to be used for several national prototypes of the metre was cast at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers.[74] When a conflict broke out regarding the presence of impurities in the metre-alloy of 1874, a member of the Preparatory Committee since 1870 and president of the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission, Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero intervened with the French Academy of Sciences to rally France to the project to create an International Bureau of Weights and Measures equipped with the scientific means necessary to redefine the units of the metric system according to the progress of sciences.[93][50][40][94]

The Metre Convention was signed on 20 May 1875 in Paris and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures was created under the supervision of the International Committee for Weights and Measures. At the session on 12 October 1872 of the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission, which was to become the International Committee for Weights and Measures,[5] Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero had been elected president.[95][96] His presidency was confirmed at the first meeting of the International Committee for Weights and Measures, on 19 April 1875.[97] Three other members of the committee, the German astronomer, Wilhelm Julius Foerster, director of the Berlin Observatory and director of the German Weights and Measures Service,[98] the Swiss meteorologist and physicist, Heinrich von Wild representing Russia,[99] and the Swiss geodesist of German origin, Adolphe Hirsch were also among the main architects of the Metre Convention.[5] In the 1870s, German Empire played a pivotal role in the unification of the metric system through the European Arc Measurement but its overwhelming influence was mitigated by that of neutral states. While the German astronomer Wilhelm Julius Foerster along with the Russian and Austrian representatives boycotted the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission in order to prompt the reunion of the Diplomatic Conference of the Metre and to promote the foundation of a permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures,[99] Adolphe Hirsch, delegate of Switzerland at this Diplomatic Conference in 1875, conformed to the opinion of Italy and Spain to create, in spite of French reluctance, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France as a permanent institution at the disadvantage of the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers.[100]

In recognition of France's role in designing the metric system, the BIPM is based in Sèvres, just outside Paris. However, as an international organisation, the BIPM is under the ultimate control of a diplomatic conference, the Conférence générale des poids et mesures (CGPM) rather than the French government.[4][101]

Closeup of National Prototype Metre Bar No. 27, made in 1889 by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in collaboration with Johnson Mattey and given to the United States,[102] which served as the standard for American cartography from 1890 replacing the Committee Meter, an authentic copy of the Mètre des Archives produced in 1799 in Paris, which Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler had brought to the United States in 1805.[38]

In 1889 the General Conference on Weights and Measures met at Sèvres, the seat of the International Bureau. It performed the first great deed dictated by the motto inscribed in the pediment of the splendid edifice that is the metric system: "A tous les temps, à tous les peuples" (For all times, to all peoples); and this deed consisted in the approval and distribution, among the governments of the states supporting the Metre Convention, of prototype standards of hitherto unknown precision intended to propagate the metric unit throughout the whole world.[103][Note 2]

For metrology the matter of expansibility was fundamental; as a matter of fact, the temperature measuring error related to the length measurement in proportion to the expansibility of the standard and the constantly renewed efforts of metrologists to protect their measuring instruments against the interfering influence of temperature revealed clearly the importance they attached to the expansion-induced errors. It was common knowledge, for instance, that effective measurements were possible only inside a building, the rooms of which were well protected against the changes in outside temperature, and the very presence of the observer created an interference against which it was often necessary to take strict precautions.[103] Thus, the Contracting States also received a collection of thermometers whose accuracy made it possible to ensure that of length measurements.[104] The international prototype would also be a "line standard"; that is, the metre was defined as the distance between two lines marked on the bar, so avoiding the wear problems of end standards.[105][106]

The construction of the international prototype metre and the copies which were the national standards was at the limits of the technology of the time. The bars were made of a special alloy, 90% platinum and 10% iridium, which was significantly harder than pure platinum, and have a special X-shaped cross section (a "Tresca section", named after French engineer Henri Tresca) to minimise the effects of torsional strain during length comparisons.[4][106] The first castings proved unsatisfactory, and the job was given to the London firm of Johnson Matthey who succeeded in producing thirty bars to the required specification. One of these, No. 6, was determined to be identical in length to the mètre des Archives, and was consecrated as the international prototype metre at the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889. The other bars, duly calibrated against the international prototype, were distributed to the signatory nations of the Metre Convention for use as national standards.[107] For example, the United States received No. 27 with a calibrated length of 0.9999984 m ± 0.2 μm (1.6 μm short of the international prototype).[108][40]

The first (and only) follow-up comparison of the national standards with the international prototype was carried out between 1921 and 1936,[4][107] and indicated that the definition of the metre was preserved to within 0.2 μm.[109] At this time, it was decided that a more formal definition of the metre was required (the 1889 decision had said merely that the "prototype, at the temperature of melting ice, shall henceforth represent the metric unit of length"), and this was agreed at the 7th CGPM in 1927.[110]

The unit of length is the metre, defined by the distance, at 0°, between the axes of the two central lines marked on the bar of platinum–iridium kept at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures and declared Prototype of the metre by the 1st Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, this bar being subject to standard atmospheric pressure and supported on two cylinders of at least one centimetre diameter, symmetrically placed in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 571 mm from each other.

These support locations are at the Bessel points of the prototype – the support points, separated by 0.5594 of the total length of the bar,[111] that minimise shortening of the bar due to bending under its own weight.[112] Because the prototype is a line standard, its full length is 102 cm, slightly longer than 1 metre.[113][114] Cross-sectionally, it measures 16 mm × 16 mm.[115]

In 1883, at its seventh General Conference in Rome, the International Geodetic Association would also consider the choice of an international prime meridian and would propose the Greenwich meridian hoping that Great Britain might respond in favour of the unification of weights and measures, by adhering to the Metre Convention.

From standard bars to wavelength of light

Invar wire baseline apparatus

The comparison of the new prototypes of the metre with each other involved the development of special measuring equipment and the definition of a reproducible temperature scale. The BIPM's thermometry work led to the discovery of special alloys of iron–nickel, in particular invar, whose practically negligible coefficient of expansion made it possible to develop simpler baseline measurement methods, and for which its director, the Swiss physicist Charles-Edouard Guillaume, was granted the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1920. Guillaume's Nobel Prize marked the end of an era in which metrology was leaving the field of geodesy to become a technological application of physics.[116][117][118]

Charles Sanders Peirce's work promoted the advent of American science at the forefront of global metrology. Alongside his intercomparisons of artifacts of the metre and contributions to gravimetry through improvement of reversible pendulum, Peirce was the first to tie experimentally the metre to the wave length of a spectral line. According to him the standard length might be compared with that of a wave of light identified by a line in the solar spectrum. Albert Abraham Michelson soon took up the idea and improved it.[83][119]

Interferometric options

A Krypton-86 lamp used to define the metre between 1960 and 1983

The first interferometric measurements carried out using the international prototype metre were those of Albert A. Michelson and Jean-René Benoît (1892–1893)[120] and of Benoît, Fabry and Perot (1906),[121] both using the red line of cadmium. These results, which gave the wavelength of the cadmium line (λ ≈ 644 nm), led to the definition of the ångström as a secondary unit of length for spectroscopic measurements, first by the International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research (1907)[122] and later by the CIPM (1927).[107][123] Michelson's work in "measuring" the prototype metre to within 1⁄10 of a wavelength (< 0.1 μm) was one of the reasons for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1907.[4][107][124]

By the 1950s, interferometry had become the method of choice for precise measurements of length, but there remained a practical problem imposed by the system of units used. The natural unit for expressing a length measured by interferometry was the ångström, but this result then had to be converted into metres using an experimental conversion factor – the wavelength of light used, but measured in metres rather than in ångströms. This added an additional measurement uncertainty to any length result in metres, over and above the uncertainty of the actual interferometric measurement.

The solution was to define the metre in the same manner as the angstrom had been defined in 1907, that is in terms of the best interferometric wavelength available. Advances in both experimental technique and theory showed that the cadmium line was actually a cluster of closely separated lines, and that this was due to the presence of different isotopes in natural cadmium (eight in total). To get the most precisely defined line, it was necessary to use a monoisotopic source and this source should contain an isotope with even numbers of protons and neutrons (so as to have zero nuclear spin).[4]

Several isotopes of cadmium, krypton and mercury both fulfil the condition of zero nuclear spin and have bright lines in the visible region of the spectrum.

Krypton standard

Krypton is a gas at room temperature, allowing for easier isotopic enrichment and lower operating temperatures for the lamp (which reduces broadening of the line due to the Doppler effect), and so it was decided to select the orange line of krypton-86 (λ ≈ 606 nm) as the new wavelength standard.[4][125]

Accordingly, the 11th CGPM in 1960 agreed a new definition of the metre:[110]

The metre is the length equal to 1 650 763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p10 and 5d5 of the krypton 86 atom.

The measurement of the wavelength of the krypton line was not made directly against the international prototype metre; instead, the ratio of the wavelength of the krypton line to that of the cadmium line was determined in vacuum. This was then compared to the 1906 Fabry–Perot determination of the wavelength of the cadmium line in air (with a correction for the refractive index of air).[4][109] In this way, the new definition of the metre was traceable to both the old prototype metre and the old definition of the angstrom.

Speed of light standard

A helium–neon laser at the Kastler-Brossel Laboratory at Univ. Paris 6
See also: Metre § Speed of light definition

The krypton-86 discharge lamp operating at the triple point of nitrogen (63.14 K, −210.01 °C) was the state-of-the-art light source for interferometry in 1960, but it was soon to be superseded by a new invention: the laser, of which the first working version was constructed in the same year as the redefinition of the metre.[126] Laser light is usually highly monochromatic, and is also coherent (all the light has the same phase, unlike the light from a discharge lamp), both of which are advantageous for interferometry.[4]

The shortcomings of the krypton standard were demonstrated by the measurement of the wavelength of the light from a methane-stabilised helium–neon laser (λ ≈ 3.39 μm). The krypton line was found to be asymmetrical, so different wavelengths could be found for the laser light depending on which point on the krypton line was taken for reference.[Note 3] The asymmetry also affected the precision to which the wavelengths could be measured.[127][128]

Developments in electronics also made it possible for the first time to measure the frequency of light in or near the visible region of the spectrum,[further explanation needed] instead of inferring the frequency from the wavelength and the speed of light. Although visible and infrared frequencies were still too high to be directly measured, it was possible to construct a "chain" of laser frequencies that, by suitable multiplication, differ from each other by only a directly measurable frequency in the microwave region. The frequency of the light from the methane-stabilised laser was found to be 88.376 181 627(50) THz.[127][129]

Independent measurements of frequency and wavelength are, in effect, a measurement of the speed of light (c = fλ), and the results from the methane-stabilised laser gave the value for the speed of light with an uncertainty almost 100 times lower than previous measurements in the microwave region. Or, somewhat inconveniently, the results gave two values for the speed of light, depending on which point on the krypton line was chosen to define the metre.[Note 4] This ambiguity was resolved in 1975, when the 15th CGPM approved a conventional value of the speed of light as exactly 299 792 458 m s−1.[130]

Nevertheless, the infrared light from a methane-stabilised laser was inconvenient for use in practical interferometry. It was not until 1983 that the chain of frequency measurements reached the 633 nm line of the helium–neon laser, stabilised using molecular iodine.[131][132] That same year, the 17th CGPM adopted a definition of the metre, in terms of the 1975 conventional value for the speed of light:[133]

The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1⁄299,792,458 of a second.

This definition was reworded in 2019:[3]

The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458 when expressed in the unit m⋅s−1, where the second is defined in terms of the caesium frequency ΔνCs.

The concept of defining a unit of length in terms of a time received some comment.[134] In both cases, the practical issue is that time can be measured more accurately than length (one part in 1013 for a second using a caesium clock as opposed to four parts in 109 for the metre in 1983).[123][134] The definition in terms of the speed of light also means that the metre can be realised using any light source of known frequency, rather than defining a "preferred" source in advance. Given that there are more than 22,000 lines in the visible spectrum of iodine, any of which could be potentially used to stabilise a laser source, the advantages of flexibility are obvious.[134]

Summary of definitions since 1798

Definitions of the metre since 1798[135]
Basis of definition Date Absolute
uncertainty 		Relative
uncertainty
1⁄10,000,000 part of one half of a meridian, measurement by Delambre and Méchain 1798 0.5–0.1 mm 10−4
First prototype Mètre des Archives platinum bar standard 1799 0.05–0.01 mm 10−5
Platinum-iridium bar at melting point of ice (1st CGPM) 1889 0.2–0.1 μm 10−7
Platinum-iridium bar at melting point of ice, atmospheric pressure, supported by two rollers (7th CGPM) 1927 n/a n/a
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of light from a specified transition in krypton-86 (11th CGPM) 1960 0.01–0.005 μm 10−8
Length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum in 1⁄299,792,458 of a second (17th CGPM) 1983 0.1 nm 10−10

See also

Notes

  1. ^ At the time the second was defined as a fraction of the Earth's rotation time and determined by clocks whose precision was checked by astronomical observations. In 1936 French and German astronomers found that Earth rotation's speed is irregular. Since 1967 atomic clocks define the second. For further information see atomic time.
  2. ^ The term "prototype" does not imply that it was the first in a series and that other standard metres would come after it: the "prototype" metre was the one that came first in the logical chain of comparisons, that is the metre to which all other standards were compared.
  3. ^ Taking the point of highest intensity as the reference wavelength, the methane line had a wavelength of 3.392 231 404(12) μm; taking the intensity-weighted mean point ("centre of gravity") of the krypton line as the standard, the wavelength of the methane line is 3.392 231 376(12) μm.
  4. ^ The measured speed of light was 299 792.4562(11) km s−1 for the "centre-of-gravity" definition and 299 792.4587(11) km s−1 for the maximum-intensity definition, with a relative uncertainty ur = 3.5×10−9.

References

  1. ^ "BIPM – Commission internationale du mètre". www.bipm.org. Archived from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2019.
  2. ^ "BIPM – la définition du mètre". www.bipm.org. Archived from the original on 30 April 2017. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
  3. ^ a b 9th edition of the SI Brochure, BIPM, 2019, p. 131
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Nelson, Robert A. (December 1981). "Foundations of the international system of units (SI)" (PDF). The Physics Teacher. 19 (9): 596–613. Bibcode:1981PhTea..19..596N. doi:10.1119/1.2340901.
  5. ^ a b c d e f Débarbat, Suzanne; Quinn, Terry (1 January 2019). "Les origines du système métrique en France et la Convention du mètre de 1875, qui a ouvert la voie au Système international d'unités et à sa révision de 2018". Comptes Rendus Physique. The new International System of Units / Le nouveau Système international d’unités. 20 (1): 6–21. Bibcode:2019CRPhy..20....6D. doi:10.1016/j.crhy.2018.12.002. ISSN 1631-0705. S2CID 126724939.
  6. ^ Kaaronen, Roope O.; Manninen, Mikael A.; Eronen, Jussi T. (2 June 2023). "Body-based units of measure in cultural evolution". Science. 380 (6648): 948–954. doi:10.1126/science.adf1936. PMID 37262170.
  7. ^ "Du pied au mètredu marc au kiloL'histoire des unités des poids et mesuresévoquée par quelques objets emblématiques descollections du Musée d'histoire des sciences" (PDF). June 2010. p. 2.
  8. ^ a b c d e Treese, Steven A. (2018). History and Measurement of the Base and Derived Units. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-77577-7. ISBN 978-3-319-77576-0.
  9. ^ "Museo Galileo - In depth - Gravitational acceleration". catalogue.museogalileo.it. Retrieved 29 January 2025.
  10. ^ "Museo Galileo - In depth - Pendulum". catalogue.museogalileo.it. Retrieved 29 January 2025.
  11. ^ Guedj, Denis (2011). Le mètre du monde. Paris: Éd. du Seuil. p. 38. ISBN 978-2-7578-2490-0. OCLC 758713673.
  12. ^ Picard, Jean (1671). Mesure de la terre (in French). pp. 3–4 – via Gallica.
  13. ^ Picard, Jean (1671). Mesure de la terre (in French). p. 23. Retrieved 5 September 2018 – via Gallica.
  14. ^ a b c Poynting, John Henry; Thompson, Joseph John (1907). A Textbook of Physics: Properties of Matter (4th ed.). London: Charles Griffin. pp. 9, 20.
  15. ^ Bigourdan 1901, pp. 8, 158–159.
  16. ^ Bigourdan, Guillaume (1901). Le système métrique des poids et mesures; son établissement et sa propagation graduelle, avec l'histoire des opérations qui ont servi à déterminer le mètre et le kilogramme. University of Ottawa. Paris : Gauthier-Villars. pp. 7, 148–154.
  17. ^ a b Lucendo, Jorge (23 April 2020). Centuries of Inventions: Encyclopedia and History of Inventions. Jorge Lucendo. p. 246. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
  18. ^ "Science. 1791, l'adoption révolutionnaire du mètre". humanite.fr (in French). 25 March 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  19. ^ "Academy of Sciences". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 15 February 2025.
  20. ^ "Earth, Figure of the" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 801–813.
  21. ^ a b Torge, Wolfgang (2016). Rizos, Chris; Willis, Pascal (eds.). "From a Regional Project to an International Organization: The "Baeyer-Helmert-Era" of the International Association of Geodesy 1862–1916". IAG 150 Years. International Association of Geodesy Symposia. 143. Cham: Springer International Publishing: 3–18. doi:10.1007/1345_2015_42. ISBN 978-3-319-30895-1.
  22. ^ Murdin, Paul (2009). Full meridian of glory: perilous adventures in the competition to measure the Earth. New York; London: Copernicus Books/Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-75534-2.
  23. ^ Martin, Jean-Pierre; McConnell, Anita (20 December 2008). "Joining the observatories of Paris and Greenwich". Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 62 (4): 355–372. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2008.0029. ISSN 0035-9149.
  24. ^ Portet, Pierre (2011). "La mesure de Paris" [The measure of Paris]. HAL open science (in French). Laboratoire de Médiévistique Occidentale de Paris – via Sciences de l'Homme et de la Société.
  25. ^ a b Clarke, Alexander Ross; James, Henry (1 January 1873). "XIII. Results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, Austria, Spain, United States, Cape of Good Hope, and of a second Russian standard, made at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. With a preface and notes on the Greek and Egyptian measures of length by Sir Henry James". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 163: 445–469. doi:10.1098/rstl.1873.0014. ISSN 0261-0523.
  26. ^ a b Clarke, Alexander Ross (1 January 1867). "X. Abstract of the results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, France, Belgium, Prussia, Russia, India, Australia, made at the ordnance Survey Office, Southampton". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 157: 161–180. doi:10.1098/rstl.1867.0010. ISSN 0261-0523. S2CID 109333769.
  27. ^ "How France created the metric system". www.bbc.com. 24 September 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2025.
  28. ^ Alder, Ken (31 December 1995). Wise, M. Norton (ed.). TWO A Revolution to Measure: The Political Economy of the Metric System in France. Princeton University Press. pp. 39–71. doi:10.1515/9780691218120-004. ISBN 978-0-691-21812-0.
  29. ^ The wall plaque next to the metre.
  30. ^ Public Domain Larousse, Pierre, ed. (1874), "Métrique", Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siècle, vol. 11, Paris: Pierre Larousse, pp. 163–164
  31. ^ "L'histoire des unités | Réseau National de la Métrologie Française". metrologie-francaise.lne.fr. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
  32. ^ Ramani, Madhvi. "How France created the metric system". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
  33. ^ a b Maury, Jean-Pierre (2007). "Grandes lois de la République: les mesures républicaines". Digithèque de matériaux juridiques et politiques.
  34. ^ National Industrial Conference Board (1921). The metric versus the English system of weights and measures ... The Century Co. pp. 10–11. Retrieved 5 April 2011.
  35. ^ a b Nyblom, Jukka (25 April 2023). "How did the meter acquire its definitive length?". GEM - International Journal on Geomathematics. 14 (1): 10. doi:10.1007/s13137-023-00218-9. ISSN 1869-2680.
  36. ^ Bigourdan 1901, pp. 8, 158–159, 176–177.
  37. ^ a b c Wolf, M. C (1882). Recherches historiques sur les étalons de poids et mesures de l'observatoire et les appareils qui ont servi a les construire (in French). Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 7–8, 20, 32. OCLC 16069502.
  38. ^ a b c NIST Special Publication. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1966. p. 529.
  39. ^ a b Brunner, Jean (1 January 1857). "Appareil construit pour les opérations au moyen desquelles on prolongera dans toute l'étendue de l'Espagne le réseau trigonométrique qui couvre la France in Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels". Gallica (in French). pp. 150–153. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
  40. ^ a b c d e Quinn, T. J. (2012). From artefacts to atoms: the BIPM and the search for ultimate measurement standards. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 11, 20, 37–38, 91–92, 70–72, 114–117, 144–147, 8. ISBN 978-0-19-990991-9. OCLC 861693071.
  41. ^ "Borda et le système métrique". Association Mesure Lab (in French). Archived from the original on 29 August 2023. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  42. ^ Viik, T (2006). "F. W. Bessel and geodesy". Struve Geodetic Arc, 2006 International Conference, The Struve Arc and Extensions in Space and Time, Haparanda and Pajala, Sweden, 13–15 August 2006. pp. 10, 6. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.517.9501.
  43. ^ Baeyer, Johann Jacob (1861). Grösse und Figur der Erde (in German). Berlin: Georg Reimer. pp. 87–94.
  44. ^ "NOAA 200th Top Tens: History Makers: Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler". US: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 19 March 2024. Retrieved 17 October 2024.
  45. ^ a b c d Cajori, Florian (1921). "Swiss Geodesy and the United States Coast Survey". The Scientific Monthly. 13 (2): 117–129. Bibcode:1921SciMo..13..117C. ISSN 0096-3771.
  46. ^ American Philosophical Society.; Society, American Philosophical; Poupard, James (1825). Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. new ser.:v.2 (1825). Philadelphia [etc.] pp. 234–278.
  47. ^ a b Clarke, Alexander Ross (1873), "XIII. Results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, Austria, Spain, United States, Cape of Good Hope, and of a second Russian standard, made at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. With a preface and notes on the Greek and Egyptian measures of length by Sir Henry James", Philosophical Transactions, vol. 163, London, p. 463, doi:10.1098/rstl.1873.0014
  48. ^ Adolphe Hirsch, Le général Ibáñez notice nécrologique lue au comité international des poids et mesures, le 12 septembre et dans la conférence géodésique de Florence, le 8 octobre 1891, Neuchâtel, imprimerie Attinger frères.
  49. ^ Wolf, Rudolf (1 January 1891). "Histoire de l'appareil Ibañez-Brunner in Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels". Gallica (in French). pp. 370–371. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
  50. ^ a b Pérard, Albert (1957). "Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero (14 avril 1825 – 29 janvier 1891), par Albert Pérard (inauguration d'un monument élevé à sa mémoire)" (PDF). Institut de France – Académie des sciences. pp. 26–28.
  51. ^ a b c Bericht über die Verhandlungen der vom 30. September bis 7. October 1867 zu BERLIN abgehaltenen allgemeinen Conferenz der Europäischen Gradmessung (PDF) (in German). Berlin: Central-Bureau der Europäischen Gradmessung. 1868. pp. 123–134.
  52. ^ a b Parr, Albert C. (1 April 2006). "A Tale About the First Weights and Measures Intercomparison in the United States in 1832". Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. 111 (1): 31–32, 36. doi:10.6028/jres.111.003. PMC 4654608. PMID 27274915 – via NIST.
  53. ^ Hassler, Harriet; Burroughs, Charles A. (2007). Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler (1770–1843). NIST Research Library. pp. 51–52.
  54. ^ Lebon, Ernest (1899). Histoire abrégée de l'astronomie / par Ernest Lebon,... pp. 168–171.
  55. ^ Puissant, Louis. Nouvelle détermination de la distance méridienne de Montjouy à Formentera, dévoilant l'inexactitude de celle dont il est fait mention dans la base du système métrique décimal, par M. Puissant,... lu à l'Académie des sciences, le 2 mai 1836.
  56. ^ a b Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá (1864). Recherche des coefficients de dilatation et étalonnage de l'appareil à mesurer les bases géodésiques appartenant au gouvernement égyptien / par Ismaïl-Effendi-Moustapha, ... pp. V–VI.
  57. ^ a b Jamʻīyah al-Jughrāfīyah al-Miṣrīyah (1876). Bulletin de la Société de géographie d'Égypte. University of Michigan. [Le Caire]. pp. 5, 7–8.
  58. ^ a b Soler, T. (1 February 1997). "A profile of General Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero: first president of the International Geodetic Association". Journal of Geodesy. 71 (3): 176–188. Bibcode:1997JGeod..71..176S. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.492.3967. doi:10.1007/s001900050086. ISSN 1432-1394. S2CID 119447198.
  59. ^ Brunner, Jean (1857). "Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels". Gallica (in French). pp. 150–153. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
  60. ^ Ross, Clarke Alexander; James, Henry (1 January 1873). "XIII. Results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, Austria, Spain, United States, Cape of Good Hope, and of a second Russian standard, made at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. With a preface and notes on the Greek and Egyptian measures of length by Sir Henry James". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 163: 445–469. doi:10.1098/rstl.1873.0014.
  61. ^ "Nomination of the STRUVE GEODETIC ARC for inscription on the WORLD HERITAGE LIST" (PDF). pp. 40, 143–144.
  62. ^ "History – The BIPM 150" (in French). Retrieved 2 February 2025.
  63. ^ Jamʻīyah al-Jughrāfīyah al-Miṣrīyah (1876). Bulletin de la Société de géographie d'Égypte. University of Michigan. [Le Caire]. pp. 6–16.
  64. ^ Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá (1886). Notes biographiques de S.E. Mahmoud Pacha el Falaki (l'astronome), par Ismail-Bey Moustapha et le colonel Moktar-Bey. pp. 10–11.
  65. ^ Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá (1864). Recherche des coefficients de dilatation et étalonnage de l'appareil à mesurer les bases géodésiques appartenant au gouvernement égyptien / par Ismaïl-Effendi-Moustapha, ...
  66. ^ a b Alder, Ken; Devillers-Argouarc'h, Martine (2015). Mesurer le monde: l'incroyable histoire de l'invention du mètre. Libres Champs. Paris: Flammarion. pp. 499–520. ISBN 978-2-08-130761-2.
  67. ^ commission, Internationale Erdmessung Permanente (1892). Comptes-rendus des séances de la Commission permanente de l'Association géodésique internationale réunie à Florence du 8 au 17 octobre 1891 (in French). De Gruyter, Incorporated. pp. 99–107. ISBN 978-3-11-128691-4.
  68. ^ Hirsch, A.; Dumur, J. (1888). Le Réseau de Triangulation suisse (in French). Vol. Troisième volume. La Mensuration des Bases. Commission géodésique suisse. pp. 3–4.
  69. ^ Abplanalp, Andrej (14 July 2019). "Henri Dufour et la carte de la Suisse". Musée national - Blog sur l'histoire suisse (in German). Archived from the original on 25 December 2024. Retrieved 25 January 2025.
  70. ^ Dufour, G.-H. (1861). "Notice sur la carte de la Suisse dressée par l'État Major Fédéral". Le Globe. Revue genevoise de géographie. 2 (1): 5–22. doi:10.3406/globe.1861.7582.
  71. ^ Seligmann, A. E. M. (1923). "La Toise de Belgique". Ciel et Terre, Bulletin of the Société Belge d'Astronomie. 39: 25.
  72. ^ Paolo Brenni (1996). "19th Century French Scientific Instrument Makers XI: The Brunners and Paul Gauher" (PDF). Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society. No. 49. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2024. Retrieved 25 January 2025.
  73. ^ Brenni, Paolo (1996). "19th Century French Scientific Intrument Makers" (PDF). Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society (49): 4.
  74. ^ a b c d "History – The BIPM 150". Retrieved 24 January 2025.
  75. ^ Zuerich, ETH-Bibliothek (1892). "Exposé historique des travaux de la commission géodésique suisse de 1862 à 1892". Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchâtel (in German). 21: 33. doi:10.5169/seals-88335.
  76. ^ "Mesure du 1er mètre: une erreur qui changea le monde". Techniques de l'Ingénieur (in French). Retrieved 30 December 2020.
  77. ^ Lebon, Ernest (1846-1922) Auteur du texte (1899). Histoire abrégée de l'astronomie / par Ernest Lebon,... pp. 170–171.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  78. ^ a b Clarke, Alexander Ross; James, Henry (1 January 1867). "X. Abstract of the results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, France, Belgium, Prussia, Russia, India, Australia, made at the ordnance Survey Office, Southampton". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 157: 174. doi:10.1098/rstl.1867.0010. S2CID 109333769.
  79. ^ Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, Discursos leidos ante la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas Fisicas y Naturales en la recepcion pública de Don Joaquin Barraquer y Rovira, Madrid, Imprenta de la Viuda e Hijo de D.E. Aguado, 1881, p. 78
  80. ^ Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm (1 April 1840). "Über das preufs. Längenmaaß und die zu seiner Verbreitung durch Copien ergriffenen Maaßregeln". Astronomische Nachrichten. 17 (13): 193. Bibcode:1840AN.....17..193B. doi:10.1002/asna.18400171302. ISSN 0004-6337.
  81. ^ Britain, Great (1824). The Statutes of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
  82. ^ a b Guillaume, Ed. (1 January 1916). "Le Systeme Metrique est-il en Peril?". L'Astronomie. 30: 244–245. Bibcode:1916LAstr..30..242G. ISSN 0004-6302.
  83. ^ a b Crease, Robert P. (1 December 2009). "Charles Sanders Peirce and the first absolute measurement standard". Physics Today. 62 (12): 39–44. doi:10.1063/1.3273015. ISSN 0031-9228.
  84. ^ "Metric Act of 1866 – US Metric Association". usma.org. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
  85. ^ Quinn, Terry (2019). "Wilhelm Foerster's Role in the Metre Convention of 1875 and in the Early Years of the International Committee for Weights and Measures". Annalen der Physik. 531 (5): 2. Bibcode:2019AnP...53100355Q. doi:10.1002/andp.201800355. ISSN 1521-3889. S2CID 125240402.
  86. ^ a b c Hirsch, Adolphe (1891). "Don Carlos Ibanez (1825–1891)" (PDF). Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. pp. 4, 8. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
  87. ^ a b Hirsch, Adolphe. "Procès-verbaux de la Conférence géodésique internationale pour la mesure des degrés en Europe, réunie à Berlin du 30 septembre au 7 octobre 1867". HathiTrust (in French). p. 22. Retrieved 3 February 2025.
  88. ^ a b Guillaume, Charles-Édouard (1927). La Création du Bureau International des Poids et Mesures et son Œuvre [The creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and its work]. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. p. 321.
  89. ^ Levallois, J. J. (1 September 1980). "Notice historique". Bulletin géodésique (in French). 54 (3): 248–313. Bibcode:1980BGeod..54..248L. doi:10.1007/BF02521470. ISSN 1432-1394. S2CID 198204435.
  90. ^ "Earth, Figure of the" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 801–813.
  91. ^ The International Metre Commission (1870–1872). International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
  92. ^ Guillaume, Ed. (1 January 1916). "Le Systeme Metrique est-il en Peril?". L'Astronomie. 30: 242–249. Bibcode:1916LAstr..30..242G. ISSN 0004-6302.
  93. ^ National Institute of Standards and Technology 2003; Historical context of the SI: Unit of length (meter)
  94. ^ Dodis, Diplomatische Dokumente der Schweiz | Documents diplomatiques suisses | Documenti diplomatici svizzeri | Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland | (30 March 1875), Bericht der schweizerischen Delegierten an der internationalen Meterkonferenz an den Bundespräsidenten und Vorsteher des Politischen Departements, J. J. Scherer (in French), Diplomatische Dokumente der Schweiz | Documents diplomatiques suisses | Documenti diplomatici svizzeri | Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland | Dodis, retrieved 20 September 2021
  95. ^ Procès-verbaux: Commission Internationale du Mètre. Réunions générales de 1872 (in French). Imprim. Nation. 1872. pp. 153–155.
  96. ^ Torge, W. (1 April 2005). "The International Association of Geodesy 1862 to 1922: from a regional project to an international organization". Journal of Geodesy. 78 (9): 558–568. Bibcode:2005JGeod..78..558T. doi:10.1007/s00190-004-0423-0. ISSN 1432-1394. S2CID 120943411.
  97. ^ Comité des International Poids et Mesures (1876). Procès-Verbaux des Séance de 1875–1876. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. p. 3.
  98. ^ Quinn, Terry (May 2019). "Wilhelm Foerster's Role in the Metre Convention of 1875 and in the Early Years of the International Committee for Weights and Measures". Annalen der Physik. 531 (5). Bibcode:2019AnP...53100355Q. doi:10.1002/andp.201800355. ISSN 0003-3804.
  99. ^ a b Comité Interational des Poids et Mesures. Procès-Verbaux des Séances. Deuxième Série. Tome II. Session de 1903. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 5–7.
  100. ^ "Bericht der schweizerischen Delegierten an der internationalen Meterkonferenz an den Bundespräsidenten und Vorsteher des Politischen Departements, J. J. Scherer in Erwin Bucher, Peter Stalder (ed.), Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland, vol. 3, doc. 66, dodis.ch/42045, Bern 1986". Dodis. 30 March 1875.
  101. ^ Article 3, Metre Convention.
  102. ^ Quinn, Terry (2012). From artefacts to atoms: the BIPM and the search for ultimate measurement standards. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-19-530786-3.
  103. ^ a b Guillaume, Charles-Édouard (11 December 1920). "Nobel lecture: Invar and Elinvar". NobelPrize.org. p. 445. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
  104. ^ Comptes rendus des séances de la ... Conférence générale des poids et mesures (in French). Gauthier-Villars. 1890. p. 25.
  105. ^ Fischer, Stéphane (June 2010). Du pied au mètre du marc au kilo (PDF) (in French) (2020 ed.). Genève: Musée d'histoire des sciences. p. 16. ISSN 2673-6586.
  106. ^ a b Quinn, Terry J. (2012). From artefacts to atoms: the BIPM and the search for ultimate measurement standards. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 13, 56-57. ISBN 978-0-19-530786-3.
  107. ^ a b c d The BIPM and the evolution of the definition of the metre, International Bureau of Weights and Measures, retrieved 30 August 2016
  108. ^ National Prototype Meter No. 27, National Institute of Standards and Technology, archived from the original on 16 September 2008, retrieved 17 August 2010
  109. ^ a b Barrell, H. (1962). "The Metre". Contemporary Physics. 3 (6): 415–434. Bibcode:1962ConPh...3..415B. doi:10.1080/00107516208217499.
  110. ^ a b International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), pp. 142–143, 148, ISBN 92-822-2213-6, archived (PDF) from the original on 4 June 2021, retrieved 16 December 2021
  111. ^ Phelps, F. M. III (1966). "Airy Points of a Meter Bar". American Journal of Physics. 34 (5): 419–422. Bibcode:1966AmJPh..34..419P. doi:10.1119/1.1973011.
  112. ^ Page, Chester H.; Vigoureux, Paul, eds. (1975). The International Bureau of Weights and Measures, 1875–1975: translation of the BIPM centennial volume (PDF). U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. p. 67.
  113. ^ "National Bureau of Standards Replica Meter Standard". Smithsonian Institution. This aluminum bar, with an X-shaped cross-section, is a replica of the platinum international meter prototype housed in Paris and used as a standard for the metric system from 1889 to 1960. ... Like an actual meter standard, the bar is 102 centimeters long and there are marks 1 centimeter from each end on this side to show the precise length of a meter.
  114. ^ Direction générale des Entreprises. "Histoire du mètre" [History of the meter] (in French). Archived from the original on 4 June 2024.
  115. ^ Gupta, S.V. (2020). Units of measurement: history, fundamentals and redefining the SI base units (2nd ed). Springer. p. 108.
  116. ^ "BIPM – la définition du mètre". www.bipm.org. Archived from the original on 30 April 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
  117. ^ "Dr. C. E. Guillaume". Nature. 134 (3397): 874. 1 December 1934. Bibcode:1934Natur.134R.874.. doi:10.1038/134874b0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4140694.
  118. ^ Guillaume, C.-H.-Ed (1 January 1906). "La mesure rapide des bases géodésiques". Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée. 5: 242–263. doi:10.1051/jphystap:019060050024200.
  119. ^ Lenzen, Victor F. (1965). "The Contributions of Charles S. Peirce to Metrology". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 109 (1): 29–46. ISSN 0003-049X.
  120. ^ Michelson, A.A.; Benoît, Jean-René (1895). "Détermination expérimentale de la valeur du mètre en longueurs d'ondes lumineuses". Travaux et Mémoires du Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (in French). 11 (3): 85.
  121. ^ Benoît, Jean-René; Fabry, Charles; Perot, A. (1907). "Nouvelle détermination du Mètre en longueurs d'ondes lumieuses". Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences (in French). 144: 1082–1086.
  122. ^ "Détermination de la valeur en Ångströms de la longeur d'onde de la raie rouge du Cadmium considérée comme étalon primaire" [Determination of the value in Ångströms of the wavelength of the red line of cadmium under consideration as a primary standard]. Transactions of the International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research (in French). 2: 18–34. 21 May 1907. Bibcode:1908TIUCS...2...17.
  123. ^ a b Hollberg, L.; Oates, C.W.; Wilpers, G.; Hoyt, C.W.; Barber, Z.W.; Diddams, S.A.; Oskay, W.H.; Bergquist, J.C. (2005). "Optical frequency/wavelength references" (PDF). Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics. 38 (9): S469 – S495. Bibcode:2005JPhB...38S.469H. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/38/9/003. S2CID 53495023.
  124. ^ Nobel Prize in Physics 1907 – Presentation Speech, Nobel Foundation, retrieved 14 August 2010
  125. ^ Baird, K.M.; Howlett, L.E. (1963). "The International Length Standard". Applied Optics. 2 (5): 455–463. Bibcode:1963ApOpt...2..455B. doi:10.1364/AO.2.000455.
  126. ^ Maiman, T.H. (1960). "Stimulated optical radiation in ruby". Nature. 187 (4736): 493–494. Bibcode:1960Natur.187..493M. doi:10.1038/187493a0. S2CID 4224209.
  127. ^ a b Evenson, K.M.; Wells, J.S.; Petersen, F.R.; Danielson, B.L.; Day, G.W.; Barger, R.L.; Hall, J.L. (1972). "Speed of Light from Direct Frequency and Wavelength Measurements of the Methane-Stabilized Laser". Physical Review Letters. 29 (19): 1346–1349. Bibcode:1972PhRvL..29.1346E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.1346.
  128. ^ Barger, R.L.; Hall, J.L. (1973). "Wavelength of the 3.39-μm laser-saturated absorption line of methane". Applied Physics Letters. 22 (4): 196–199. Bibcode:1973ApPhL..22..196B. doi:10.1063/1.1654608. S2CID 1841238.
  129. ^ Evenson, K.M.; Day, G. W.; Wells, J.S.; Mullen, L.O. (1972). "Extension of Absolute Frequency Measurements to the cw He☒Ne Laser at 88 THz (3.39 μ)". Applied Physics Letters. 20 (3): 133–134. Bibcode:1972ApPhL..20..133E. doi:10.1063/1.1654077. S2CID 118871648.
  130. ^ Resolution 2 of the 15th CGPM. 15th Meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures. International Bureau of Weights and Measures. 1975.
  131. ^ Pollock, C.R.; Jennings, D.A.; Petersen, F.R.; Wells, J.S.; Drullinger, R.E.; Beaty, E.C.; Evenson, K.M. (1983). "Direct frequency measurements of transitions at 520 THz (576 nm) in iodine and 260 THz (1.15 μm) in neon". Optics Letters. 8 (3): 133–135. Bibcode:1983OptL....8..133P. doi:10.1364/OL.8.000133. PMID 19714161. S2CID 42447654.
  132. ^ Jennings, D.A.; Pollock, C.R.; Petersen, F.R.; Drullinger, R. E.; Evenson, K.M.; Wells, J.S.; Hall, J.L.; Layer, H.P. (1983). "Direct frequency measurement of the I2-stabilized He–Ne 473-THz (633-nm) laser". Optics Letters. 8 (3): 136–138. Bibcode:1983OptL....8..136J. doi:10.1364/OL.8.000136. PMID 19714162.
  133. ^ Resolution 1, 17th Meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures, 1983
  134. ^ a b c Wilkie, Tom (27 October 1983). "Time to remeasure the metre". New Scientist (27 October 1983): 258–263.
  135. ^ Cardarelli, François (2003). Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights and Measures. Springer-Verlag London Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4471-1122-1.
Allikas: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A8tre_des_Archives
No tags for this post.