Old Malayalam, or Early Malayalam, the inscriptional variety found in Kerala from c. 9th to c. 13th century CE, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam language.[1][2] The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the medieval Chera kings as well as the upper-caste village temples).[1] Old Malayalam was mostly written in Vatteluttu script (with additional Pallava/Southern Grantha characters).[1]

The existence of Old Malayalam is sometimes disputed by scholars.[3] They regard the medieval Chera inscriptional variety of the vernacular as a diverging dialect or variety of contemporary [medieval] Tamil.[3] Malayalam is historically noted for its diglossia, or existence of different varieties of the language (the formal form, literary or prestige form and common colloquial dialect).[4]

Names

  • Old Malayalam was called "Tamil" by the people of south India for many centuries.[5]
  • Old Malayalam was at first mistakenly described by modern scholars as "Tamil", then as "the western dialect of Tamil" or "mala-nattu Tamil" (a "desya-bhasa").[6][7]

History

The start of the development of Old Malayalam from a dialect of contemporary [medieval] Tamil can be dated to c. 7th - 8th century CE.[8][9][4] It remained a west coast dialect until c. 9th century CE or a little later.[8][10]

The formation of the language is mainly attributed to geographical separation of Kerala from the Tamil country[10] and the influence of immigrant Tulu-Canarese Brahmins in Kerala (who also knew Sanskrit and Prakrit).[1]

The later evolution of Old Malayalam is visible in the inscriptions dated to c. 9th to c. 12th century CE.[11][12]

Differences from medieval Tamil

Although Old Malayalam closely resembles contemporary [medieval] Tamil it also shows characteristic new features.[13] Major differences between Old Malayalam (the Chera inscriptional language) and contemporary [medieval] inscriptional/literary Tamil of the eastern country are:[1]

  • Nasalization of adjoining sounds
  • Substitution of palatal sounds for dental sounds
  • Contraction of vowels
  • Rejection of gender verbs

Literary compositions

There is no Old Malayalam literature preserved from this period (c. 9th to c. 12th century AD).[14] Some of the earliest Malayalam literary compositions appear after the early medieval period.[15][16]

Old Malayalam inscriptions

Some of the discovered inscriptions in Old Malayalam are listed below on the basis of their expected chronological order, also including their locations and key contents.[17] Most of them are written in a mixture of Vatteluttu and Grantha scripts.[17]

Inscription Location Notes
Quilon Syrian copper plates- near Kollam (849/850 CE)[17]
Vazhappally copper plate Inscription - near Vazhappally (882/883 CE)[19]
  • King Rajasekhara is described as "Sri, Raja Rajadhiraja, Parameswara Bhattaraka, Rajashekhara Deva" and "the Perumal Atikal".[21]
  • The fines for those who obstruct the daily worship in the temple are also prescribed.[21]
  • Also mentions a coin called "dinara".[21]
Sukapuram inscription - near Ponnani (9th/10th century CE)[17]
  • Sukapuram Dakshinamoorthy Temple[17]
Chokkur inscription (Chokoor, Puthur village) - near Koduvally (920 CE)
  • Single granite slab in courtyard of the Chokkur Temple.
  • A person known as Karkottupurathu Kadamba Kumara establishes "Kumara-Narayana-Pura Temple" by a land grant.[9]
  • Earliest record to refer the 'Agreement of Muzhikkulam'.[9]
Nedumpuram Thali inscription, Thichoor Wadakkanchery (922 CE)
  • Thali inscriptions of Cochin State - two granite slabs fixed into the half wall in the entrance corridor on the left side of Nedumpuram Thali.
  • Dated in Kali Year 4030 (=929/30 CE)[22]
  • Two halves of the record on two separate slabs (one with the regnal year and the other one with the date in Kali Era) were initially registered separately.[9]
  • Council is the chieftain of Vembanadu (Alappuzha) called Goda Ravi.[9]
  • Mentions the Nangaimar (dancing girls) of the Nedumpuram Thali.[9]
Avittathur inscription (925 CE)
  • Single granite slab paved in the courtyard of the Avittathur Temple near the sopana.
  • Mentions the Cheraman Maha Devi (the Chera queen) - only record mentioning a Chera queen from Kerala.[9]
  • Council is attended by the chieftain of Valluvanad (the Rayira Ravar).[9]
Ramanthali/Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription (Plate I - 929 CE and Plate II - 1075 CE)
  • Mentions Mushika Validhara Vikrama Rama.[23]
  • The so-called Agreement of Muzhikkulam is quoted in the record.[24]
  • Merchant guild manigramam is appointed as the guardian of the Narayankannur Temple.[23]
  • Mentions the King Kunda Alupa, the ruler of Alupa dynasty of Mangalore.[23]
Triprangode inscription (932 CE)
  • Mentions the Agreement of Thavanur.[9]
  • Council is attended by the Ala-koyil (a Chera prince).
Poranghattiri inscription (Chaliyar) (932 CE)
  • Single granite slab in the courtyard of the Poranghattiri Temple.
  • Cites the Agreement of Muzhikkulam.[9]
  • Council is attended by the Koyil and the Ala-koyil (members of the Chera royal family).[9]
Indianur inscription (Kottakkal) (932 CE)
  • A slab with inscriptions two separate Chera-Perumals on either side.[9]
  • Council is attended by the Koyil (a Chera prince).[9]
Thrippunithura inscription (935 CE)
  • Originally from Santhana Gopalakrishna Temple, Thrippunithura - now in Archeological Museum, Trichur.
  • Latest regnal year Kota Ravi mentioned in the inscriptions.[9]
  • Council is attended by Ravi Aditya, a minister and a Chera prince.[9]
  • Kota Ravi was initially identified as the brother-in-law of Jatavarman Kulasekhara Deva.[9]
Panthalayani Kollam inscription (973 CE)
  • Single stone slab in the upper frame of the srikoyil (central shrine) entrance in Tali temple.[25]
  • Name of the king – probably Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 CE) – is built over by the present structure.[25]
Mampalli copper plate inscription (974 CE)
Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque inscription (10th century CE)
  • On the granite blocks built into the steps of the ablution tank of the Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque[28]
  • A rare surviving document recording patronage by a Hindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) (961-1021 CE) to the Mappila Muslims of Kerala.[28] It also mentions about a merchant guild.[28]
Eramam inscription (1020 CE)
Pullur Kodavalam inscription (1020 CE)
  • Engraved on a single stone slab in the courtyard of the Pullur Kodavalam Vishnu Temple[31][32]
  • Mentions Chera Perumal king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 CE).[31][32]
  • Identified king Manukuladitya with king Bhaskara Ravi.[32]
Tiruvadur inscription (c. 1020 CE)
  • Partly in the courtyard of the temple on either side of the sopana.[33]
  • Partly in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple.[33]
  • Creation and endowment of a grama (Brahmin settlement) with members chosen from some old grama settlements from central Kerala (Vaikom, Paravur, Avittathoor, Irinjalakuda and Peruvanam).[33]
  • The engraver is mentioned as Rama Jayamani, the "royal goldsmith of the Mushika king [Jayamani]".[33]
Trichambaram inscription

(c. 1040 CE)

  • Three blocks of granite on the base of the central shrine of the temple.[34]
  • Mentions Chera Perumal king Raja Raja (c. 1036–1089 CE).[34]
  • Mentions Chera Perumal king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 CE) and Iramakuta Muvar Kantan Karivarman (Srikantha Kartha) (c.1020 CE).[29]
  • Mentions the merchants guilds of Valanchiyar and Nanadeyar.[29]
  • Mentions Rajendra Chola Samaya Senapati from Katappa Palli.[29]
Maniyur inscription

(c. 11th century)

  • Single stone slab outside the prakara (outer wall) of the temple.[35]
  • Confirms the extension of the so-called Agreement of Muzhikkulam to Mushika country.[35]
Kinalur inscription

(c. 1083 CE)

  • Both sides of a single granite slab in site of the ruined (now lost) Kinalur Jain Temple near Kozhikode.[36]
  • The estampage can be found in Government Epigraphist's Office, Mysore.[36]
  • Mentions Arappan Kunchi, the chief of Kurumbranad.[36]
  • Arappan Kunchi, the chief of Kurumbranad, donated lands to Kunavaynallur (Jain temple) and leased them out to Chathan Arukkadi of Tiruvanchikkalam, and Kuntan Chirunankai and Chathan Chirukanthan.[36]
  • Manukulai-chekara-nallur (Jain temple) is mentioned.[36]
  • Munnutruvar, the Three Hundred (probably the second Hundred of Kurumbranad), and Muvayiravar (the Three Thousand) are mentioned.[36]
Panthalayani Kollam inscription

(c. 1089 CE)

  • Single granite slab in the courtyard of the Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavati temple.[37]
  • The record was destroyed.[37]
  • Mentions Chera Perumal king Rama Kulasekhara (1089–1122 CE).[37]
  • The location given as "Kollathu Panthalayani".[37]
Tiruvalla Copper Plates

(Huzur Treasury Plates) (10th-11th centuries CE)

Kannapuram inscription

(beginning of the 12th century)

  • Single stone slab fixed on a platform outside the prakara (outer wall) of the Kannapuram temple.[24]
  • Ramakuta Muvar Udaya Varma is mentioned.[24]
Muchundi Mosque inscription (Kozhikode)

(beginning of the 13th century)

  • The highly damaged, worn and fragmentary donative inscription is engraved on a granite stone slab (slab is seen as fixed on the wall at Mosque Muchundi).[39]
  • Written in a mixture of Old Malayalam (Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts) and Arabic language.[39]
  • The Old Malayalam portion of the inscription describes the assignment of revenues accruing from certain lands for the expenditure of Muchundi Mosque.[39]
  • Mentions two local place names, "Kunnamangalam and "Pulikkizhu".[39]
  • The second half, which is the Arabic portion, starts with the opening prayer from Qur'an.[39]
  • The inscription says that certain Shahab al-din Raihan purchased the piece of land and constructed thereon the mosque, and made provision for its imam and mua'dhdhin.[39]
Viraraghava copper plates inscription

(1225 CE)[40]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 380–82. ISBN 9788188765072.
  2. ^ Ayyar, L. V. Ramaswami (1936). The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology. Thrissur (Kerala): Rama Varma Research Institute. p. 3.
  3. ^ a b Freeman, Rich (2003). "The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Sheldon, Pollock (ed.). Literary Cultures in History. University of California Press. pp. 445–46. ISBN 9780520228214.
  4. ^ a b Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2024). "Malayalam Language". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  5. ^ Sheldon, Pollock (2003). "Introduction". Literary Cultures in History. University of California Press. p. 24.
  6. ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 380–82.
  7. ^ Veluthat, Kesavan (2018). "History and Historiography in Constituting a Region: The Case of Kerala". Studies in People's History. 5 (1): 13–31. ISSN 2348-4489.
  8. ^ a b Karashima, Noburu, ed. (2014). "Language and Literature". A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 152–53. ISBN 978-0-19-809977-2.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 438-42.
  10. ^ a b Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2024). "Dravidian Languages". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  11. ^ Menon, T. K. Krishna (1939). A Primer of Malayalam Literature. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 9788120606036.
  12. ^ Baby, Saumya (2007). L. V. Ramaswami Aiyar's Contributions to Malayalam Linguistics: A Critical Analysis (PDF). Department of Malayalam, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit.
  13. ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (1972). Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala. Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala): Kerala Historical Society. p. 18.
  14. ^ Freeman, Rich (2003). "The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Sheldon, Pollock (ed.). Literary Cultures in History. University of California Press. pp. 445–46.
  15. ^ Menon, T. K. Krishna (1939). A Primer of Malayalam Literature. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 9788120606036.
  16. ^ Baby, Saumya (2007). L. V. Ramaswami Aiyar's Contributions to Malayalam Linguistics: A Critical Analysis (PDF). Department of Malayalam, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. ISBN 9788188765072.
  18. ^ a b Cereti, C. G. (2009). "The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates". In Sundermann, W.; Hintze, A.; de Blois, F. (eds.). Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447059374.
  19. ^ Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 128. ISBN 9781108494571.
  20. ^ Rao, T. A. Gopinatha. Travancore Archaeological Series (Volume II, Part II). 8-14.
  21. ^ a b c d Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 435.
  22. ^ 'Changes in Land Relations during the Decline of the Cera State,' In Kesavan Veluthat and Donald R. Davis Jr. (eds), Irreverent History: Essays for M.G.S. Narayanan, Primus Books, New Delhi, 2014. 74-75.
  23. ^ a b c d e Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 475-76.
  24. ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 483.
  25. ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 448-49.
  26. ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. 2013. 'Index to Chera Inscriptions', in Perumāḷs of Kerala, M. G. S Narayanan, pp. 218 and 478–79. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks.
  27. ^ Rao, T. A. Gopinatha. 1907-08 (1981 reprint). Mamballi Plates of Srivallavangodai', in Epigraphica Indica, Vol IX. pp. 234–39. Calcutta. Govt of India.
  28. ^ a b c Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), South Indian Inscriptions. VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.
  29. ^ a b c d e Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 455.
  30. ^ Annual Reports of Indian Epigraphy (1963-64), No. 125.
  31. ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 68-70, 84 and 454.
  32. ^ a b c Narayanan, M.G.S. THE IDENTITY AND DATE OF KING MANUKULĀDITYA. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 31, 1969, 73–78.
  33. ^ a b c d Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 480-81.
  34. ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 465.
  35. ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 486.
  36. ^ a b c d e f Narayanan, M. G. S. 2013. 'Index to Chera Inscriptions', in Perumāḷs of Kerala, M. G. S Narayanan, pp. 484–85. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks.
  37. ^ a b c d Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 470.
  38. ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 197.
  39. ^ a b c d e f M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) ISBN 978-81-8267-114-0
  40. ^ Veluthat, Kesavan. The Early Medieval in South India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. 2009. 152, and 154.
  41. ^ a b Epigraphica Indica, Volume IV. [V. Venkayya, 1896-97] pp. 290-7.
  42. ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 222, 279, and 299.

Further reading

  • Dr. K. Ayyappa Panicker (2006). A Short History of Malayalam Literature. Thiruvananthapuram: Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala.
  • Menon, A. Sreedhara (2007). A Survey of Kerala History. DC Books. ISBN 9788126415786.
  • Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus - 2019 (Malayalam ed.). Kozhikode: P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited, Kozhikode. 2018.
Allikas: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Malayalam
No tags for this post.