Chin peoples

Burmese: ချင်းလူမျိုး Mara: Chin phopi Tedim Chin: Chin nam Hakha Chin: Chin miphun Falam Chin: Chin phunpi
Chin women and children
Total population
1,500,000+ (2011)
Regions with significant populations
Myanmar	1,500,000[1]
India	100,000+
Mizoram	70,000–100,000 (2012)[2]
Manipur	12,000[3]
United States	70,000[4]
Malaysia	12,000[5]
Languages
Lingua franca: Burmese or Native: other Kuki-Chin languages
Religion
Majority: Christianity 80%[6] Minority: 20%[6] Buddhism, folk religions
Related ethnic groups
Mizo people, Naga people, Kuki people, Bawm people

The Chin peoples (Burmese: ချင်းလူမျိုး, MLCTS: hkyang: lu. myui:, pronounced [tɕɪ́ɰ̃ lù mjó]) are collection of ethnic groups native to the Chin State, Myanmar that speak the Kuki-Chin-Mizo languages, which are closely related but mutually unintelligible. The Chin identity, as a pan-ethnic identity, is a modern construction, shaped by British rule and post-independence ethnic politics that has built upon older tribal and regional identities.

Chin (ချင်း, MLCTS: khyang:) is a pseudo-exonym, a Burmese language adaptation of the Asho Chin word khlong or khlaung, which means "man" or "person."^[7] Burmese speakers approximated the Asho Chin word, and began to apply the exonym to all nearby groups residing in the Arakan Mountains and Chin Hills.^[7] The Burmese term first appeared in stone inscriptions dating to the reign of King Kyansittha in the 11th century.^[8]

The term "Chin" is not universally accepted by all groups living in Chin State nor by all Kuki-Chin groups.^[7] Groups in the north prefer the ethnonym Zo, while related ethnolinguistic groups in India prefer the terms Zomi or Mizo.^[7][9]

During the era of British rule, the colonial government used the compound term 'Chin-Kuki-Mizo' to group the Kukish language speaking peoples, and the Indian government inherited this nomenclature.^[10][11][12] The Burmese government classifies the Chin as a "national race" composed of 53 sub-groups that predominantly live in Chin State.^[13]

According to F.K. Lehman, the Chin people can be divided into broad cateogories under geography and culture known as the Northern Chin and the Southern Chin. The northern Chin are known as the hill Chin.^[14] The division between the Northern and Southern Chin is demarcated at 21°45'N. Lehman describes the Southern Chin as having poorer material culture compared to the North.^[15][16]

In the Nothern Chin Hills, they can be divided into three tracts in the Tedim, Falam and Haka. The Tedim tract consists of Sukte, Kamhau and Sizang. These can be further subdivided into subtribes such as the Dim, Khuano, Hualngo, Sizang, Tedim, Saizang, Thado, Teizang, Vangte, Guite, Vaiphei and Zou. These groups identify as Zomi. The Falam tract is thickly populated by the tribes of Sunthla, Zahau, Hualngo, Khualsim, Tawyan, Zanniat, Ngawn, Laizo and Khuangli, who are sometimes known as Pawi. Historically, the British recorded them as Tashon as a corruption of Taisun or Klashun, a village west of Falam.^[14] In the Haka tract, the Hakas, Thantlang, Zokhua, Thettas and Kapis. They call themselves Laimi. The Haka tract inhabitants share similarities with the Maras.^[15]

The Southern Chin largely consists of the plains or valley Chin. Their cultural practicers differ such as the cremation of the dead and face tatoos. The Southern Chin consist of the Chinme, Welaung, Chinbok, Yindu, Chinbon, Khyang, Sho, Asho, Cho, Khami, Mro and some Burmese tribes such as the Anu, Kun, Pallaing and Sak/Thet. These groups live north of Arakan and the Pakkoku tracts.^[15]

The Chin peoples predominantly live in the western part of Myanmar, stretching from the Singu Plateau to the Arakan Mountains, encompassing Chin and Rakhine States, Bago, Magwe, and Sagaing Region.^[9] Major cities like Yangon and Mandalay are also home to big Chin communities.^[7] Some of the Chin live in Rakhine State and most of them are Cumtu, Asho, Kongtu and Laitu. The Chin in Rakhine State live in Myebon, Minbya, Ann, Thandwe and Gwa, and are majority Cumtu Chin.

Due to political instability in Myanmar, many Chin have migrated to Bangladesh, India, Thailand, Malaysia, and the United States as refugees.^[9][17] American Baptist, British, and Swedish Lutheran church groups have helped relocate thousands of Chin people. 20,000 Chin people refugees are living in Malaysia. Several thousands more are scattered in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand.^[18]

The Chin people who flee from Burma usually enter the United States directly from Thailand, Malaysia, and India. Leaving Myanmar is often illegal, dangerous, and costly. Refugees with limited means flee by boat, car, or on foot, while those with more resources may travel by air.^[19] Human smugglers, or brokers, typically charge around US$1,000 per person to cross borders. If caught by either Burmese or foreign authorities, refugees risk imprisonment and mistreatment, including beatings. In refugee camps—mainly in Thailand—families are advised that having children may improve their chances of resettlement in the United States. As a result, many young Chin parents arrive in the U.S. needing immediate employment to support their families.^[20][21]

An estimated 60,000 to 100,000 Chin refugees live in India, primarily in Mizoram. Due to restrictions on freedom of movement imposed by the SPDC, many flee Myanmar without documents and seek refuge across the border.^[22][23] While Mizoram initially welcomed the Chin, growing numbers led to backlash and deportations among local Mizos. The Young Mizo Association (YMA), which promotes Mizo identity, previously ordered Chin refugees to leave and assisted police in forced evictions—actions that violated the principle of non-refoulement.^[24][25] Chins in Mizoram live without legal status, making them vulnerable to arrest, detention, and exploitation. They face challenges accessing livelihoods, healthcare, and shelter, and often live on the margins of society.^[26][27]

Ancestors of the Chin are believed to have originated between the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers in northwestern China.^[9] The Chins maintain a origin known as Chinlung. Due to the nature of oral history it is difficult to locate Chinlung but several theories have been proposed. Zawla, a Mizo historian, argues that the Chins left Chinlung during the reign of Qin Shi Huang. Sing Khaw Khai and CHawn Kio both argue that the Chin are desendents of the Tibeto-Burman historical Qiang people. Based on this account, the Chin originate in the Gansu-Tibet frontier.^[28]

Gordon Luce states that the Qiang moved south due to disturbances by the Chinese. The Tibeto-Burman stock migrated in three waves with the Chin-Kachin-Naga group, followed by the Burman and Lolo peoples.^[29] However, the link of Tibeto-Burman groups with ancient China has been refuted by anthropologists. Anthropologists disclaim that the people did not originate from cultural units known today and cannot be identified with any particular groups of today. On this basis, F.K. Lehman states that the ancestors of the Chin and Burmese were distinct from each other even before migrating into Burma.^[30] He states that the Chin originated from western China and eastern Tibet towards the Hukong valley, which is different to the Burmese route.^[31] According to Lehman, Chin history begins in 750 A.D. with the development of Burmese civilisation and the Chin's interaction with it.^[30]

Using historical evidence of Burman inscriptions of the Pagan dynasty, Luce argues that the earliest inscriptions mentioning the Chin begin in the middle of the 9th century, thus suggesting Chin settlement in the Chindwin Valley to begin in the 8th century, with possibilities dating as far back as the fourth century.^[31] The Chindwin was unoccupied despite being populated with other groups in its periphery. While the Burmese fought groups such as the Thet, Mon and Pyu, they did not fight the Chins. Luce states that Pagan Burman called the Chins 'friends'. They pushed up to the Yaw and the Irrawady but did not extend their territory to the Chindwin. Luce postulates that the Chin did not join the enemies of the Burmans due to hostile relations. The passage of the Chins through the Hulkong valley had divided the Thets into a western Manipur tribe and an eastern tribe. The Burmese referred to the Chin as khyancode: mya promoted to code: my and inferred to have made an agreement of their occupation of the upper Chindwin.^[32]

The Chin would eventually migrate from the eastern bank of the Chindwin into the Kale valley, approximately in the final years of the 13th century or the early 14th century. This is because Pagan records, until its fall in 1295, inscribed that the Chin were located between the eastern bank of the upper Chindwin and west of the Irrawaddy River. Oral traditions dictate that a flood had forced the migration. Luce argued that the Chins lost their Pagan ally and moved for this reason. The Zophei and Laimi tribes recount floods driving them from the low valley into the mountains across the river. It is suggested that the name Kale, descends from Khatlei/ Khalei/ Khale meaning the other side of the river.^[33] Following this migration, the Chins were divided into different groups, clans and tribes and dialects.^[33]

Following the fall of Pagan, the Chin lived in peace in the Kale-Kabaw valley for a century until the founding of the Shan's city of Kalemyo. The Chin founded their capital at Khampat in the Kabaw valley. However, in 1395, when the Shan built the city of Kalemyo at the border of the Chin Hills, the Kale Valley came to an end. The rise in Shan states in the regions of Upper Chindwin and Central Burma overshadowed the Chins. As a result, the Kale valley remained under Shan rule until British annexation. They conquered the Chin territory and established the Ahom Kingdom in Assam. However historians, Sing Khaw Khai and Lalthangliana argue the Chins lived among the Shan for a certain period. Zomi tribes note that a prince from below the mountains came up to govern Kalemyo. The Chins were made to build double walls and fortifications. This period of hardship under the Shan ruler is said to have been so great that the accidental cutoff of fingers were able to fill a big basket.^[34]

The Chins left Kale and established new settlements in the hills, including the present township of Tiddim. Historian D.G.E. Hall argues that the Shans drove out the Chins into the Chin hills from the Chindwin valley. Lalthangliana, a Mizo historian, presents the oral story of the banyan sapling at the altar of the khua-hrum. The people planted the Banyan saplig before they were forced to abandon Khampat and pledged to return when the branches of the Sapling were to touch the ground. However, the true reason for why the Chins left Khampat and the Chindwin valley is unknown. The earliest reference to the Chins in the Chin Hills comes from the Manipur Chronicles, mentioning the Chin in 1554. Therefore, historians posit that the Chins left Kale-myo in 1395 and reached the northern Chin Hills at the furthest in 1554. The first settlement in the Chin Hills was called Chin Nwe or Cinnuai. Cartey and Tuck spelt it as "Chin Nwe". The Chins lived together in Chin Nwe until splitting into tribal groups due to political infighting and struggles. The main factor for this was economics as there was not enough land on the small hilly region for the population. One group split off to make a settlement in Lai-lung in present day Falam and formed the Laimi tribe. Another tribe in Locom become that the Mizo tribe. Tribes that moved north of Chin-Nwe became the Zomi people. Prior to Chin-Nwe there is no historical evidence of tribal differentiation and ethnic diaspora of the Zo people.^[35]

Some Chins remained in the Chindwin and referred to as Chin. The Asho tribe split early from the Chins and scattered around the Irrawaddy delta, eventually going as far as Chittagong, where they were known as "Khyeng".^[36]

Following the establishment of political agency in Kingdom of Manipur, the treaty of 1834 transferred the Kabaw Valley to Burma including the Shan sabwas of Kale and Sumjok to Burmese sovereignty.^[37] This coincided with the rise of the Sukte clan in the north Chin Hills. Chief Khan Thuam of Mualbem was a powerful chief who became the target of a coalition of mang-kua (transl. nine-chiefs) against him. Khan Thuam fled to Falam and took shelter under the Chief of Rallang, Khuang Ceu, with tribute. With son son Kam Hau, Khan Thuam soon overcame opposition with aid from Rallang. He returned to Mualbem and took revenge against the previous chiefs. As a result of his invasion of the Tedim tribes this led to migration of several tribes into neighbouring Manipur. Colonel William McCulloch described his observations of the scattered tribes in the Manipur Valley. The Guite and Zou tribes settled in the eastern Lushai Hills and the Manipur Valley.^[38] The Sukte absorbed all remaining tribes. Khan Thuam levied customary taxes and dues from suboridinate villages and created the Sukte domain.^[37]

Siahtaang kaihna sak ciang teimei, ka hialna lamtui hi e.
Sak ciang teimei sang ciang lamtui, a lai ah kamkei hi'ing e.
English:
What I rule extends to Manipur in the North, and ends at Falam in the South.
Manipur to the North, Falam to the South, I am the tiger in the middle.

Khan Thuam died in 1848 and was succeeded by his youngest son Za Pau. However, his eldest son, Kam Hau, was more capable and established the village of Tedim. While Kam Hau lost Tedim to the Zou and Thado, he regained it years later. Tedim grew and attracted many warriors, becoming one of the largest settlements and a seat of power in the Chin Hills. He subdued neighbouring tribes and villages in the Northern Chin Hills. The acquisition of firearms from the Burmese is credited as the reason for his successful invasions.^[40] Sukte tradition states that when Khan Thuam was taking refuge in Falam, Kam Hau, who was with him, mastered the use of the gun by shooting a wild mithun which no one else dared hunt. Kam Hau's rule extended from the region east of the Manipur River up to the Manipur Valley with 135 villages under his rule. His brother, Za Pau, controlled territory west of the Manipur River but had been eclipsed by Kam Hau's prowess. Due to this, the villages of Kam Hau were referred to as Kamhau despite both brothers being of the Sukte clan.^[41]

Kam Hau spread his influence into the Kale-Kabaw valley with raids on the settlements. Reports have suggested that the Shan Sabwas took revenge in 1850. The raids under Kam Hau were directed towards Yazagyo, which was a market for the Kamhau people.^[41] The power of the Sukte clan became an issue of security concerns in Manipur.^[42]

Following the Third Anglo-Burmese War the Chins were surrounded by the British Empire. A series of raids and hostilities in the Lushai Hills and the Chin Hills led to the Chin-Lushai Expedition. This expedition would annex both the Mizos and the Chins. From Decembefr 1888-January 1889 36 British were killed and 54 wounded.^[43] The Chin-Lushai Expedition was launched with the goal of permanent occupation of the Lushai and Chin tribes. The British invaded from Burma, Assam and Chittagong.^[44] Chin resistance lasted longer than the British expected, and the terrain was becoming difficult to occupy. The British decided to conquer each tribe at a time. By 1892, the majority of the tribes were put into submission under the British. The Sizang, Sukte, Kamhau and Thlantlang of the Laimi opposed the British, while others refused to give up their slaves.^[45] The Chins stopped resisting in 1895-1896 following famine. The famine had occurred due to long-term warfare and the British burning of granaries and crops.^[46]

The Chin Hills Regulation 1896 was applied. This legalised the classification of the name Chin across the various clans and tribes.^[47] The Chin State was given a superintendent, the first one being B.S. Carey as the chief executive of the administrative division.^[48] The British implemented an administrative policy of "indirect rule" and recognised the system of chieftainship known as khua-bawi. The democratic forms of chieftainship such as in the Tlaisun tribes were abolished and the ram-uk system of chieftainship was ignored until 1919.^[49]

During the peak of the "high imperial era", Superintendents Carey and Captain Drury invited the American Baptist missionary couple Reverend Arthur Carson and Laura Carson in 1899. Carey and Drury cited this policy as part of the pacification of the Chins.^[50] More missionary families arrived. Five of the original seven were Swedish descendants. ^[51] In 1902 the first medical missionary Dr East arrived at Hakha with the assistance of the Carsons.^[52] The Chin Hills Baptist Association was formed at Hakha in 1907.^[53]

With the outbreak of World War One the United Kingdom began to recruit soldiers form colonies. In 1916, one million soldiers and 500k non combatants were deployed from British India and Burma to campaigns in Mesopotamia, Iran, Turkey and France. The Mizos provided a labour battalion in 1916 but more men were needed. In 1917, 1000 men joined from Haka, Falam and Tiddim. The Tiddim remained with the British but the Laimi tribe in the Haka subdivisions rebelled against the British.^[54]

This is argued to stem from a misunderstanding of 1890. The British invited eighteen chiefs to visit Rangoon in September 1890. However, due to the outbreak of bubonic plague, six Chin Chiefs died. The Chins believed they had died as they travelled beyond the sovereignty of the khua-hrum, which could no longer protect them. Similararly, the raising of labour corps created a stirring in the Chin Hills that they would be outside the protection of their sovereign Khua-hrum. The Chins refused to go. In 1917, 5000 men from Haka, Zokhua, Senthang, Zophei, Miram, Lautu and Zotung made a sacred oath known as Sathintuh at Sakta to make war against the British. However, a Christian convert, Chia Khaw, leaked the plans to the British.^[55] The British reinforced Haka and the Chins could not easily overrun it.^[56] The British sepoys burnt down the villages in the Senthang and Zophei areas, killed livestock and destroyed crops and grains. The war lasted for two years and a famine led to a Chin surrender in 1919. The leaders of the rebellion were brought to trial and 61 were sentenced. Three were sentenced to be executed but they committed suicide first.^[57]

The Kamhau (Tiddim) who were deployed in the war returned with better economic conditions. Some learnt trade and most of them became professional soldiers after the war. This journey also changed the traditional belief that one could now travel outside the sovereignty of their khua-hrum. This also led to an increase in Christian proselytisation among the Chin people.^[58] However, the impact of the uprising also led to a lack of shelter and food, leading to famine and disease. This led to a refugee crisis.^[59]

Following the Government of India Act 1935, the British established Ministerial Burma. However, this government excluded the Chins, Shans, Kachins and Karenni from gaining any representation in the political structure as they had been conquered separately as independent countries. Furthermore, the demarcated borders of Burma and India divided the land of Zoram into a western Lushai Hills district and an eastern Chin Hills.^[60] The demarcation also split Maraland of the Mara tribes. This led to a confrontation between the Lakher Pioneer Mission established in 1937 and the American Baptist Chin Mission.^[61] The new boundaries now made the LPM's operations in the Burmese territory unauthorised. The Deputy Commissioner, Mr Naylor, held negotiations for both missionary groups on 24 May 1938.^[62] The Lakher Pioneer Mission was thus shifted back to India, and the American Baptists continued their work in the Chin Hills unopposed.^[63]

Following the division, the Governor of Assam, Robert Neil Reid, opposed the outcome. He advocated against the permanent division of the tribes, which should naturally be one administration.^[64] In 1941, Robert Reid put forward a proposal known as the Crown Colonial Scheme of 1941. He proposed to form a separate colonial province as neither the Chin, Mizo, nor other tribes are considered Indian. The province in the scheme would have its own governorship and operate as a unit akin to Assam, Bengal and Burma. This proposal was supported by Winston Churchill and the Conservative Party. However, the advent of World War Two prevented the scheme from being implemented.^[64]

The Japanese occupation of Burma led to the establishment of the Burma Independence Army. The army considered excesses and racial violence against the Karens as revenge for their battalions assisting the British against them in the Saza San rebellion. During the war, the British recruited non-Burmans, with the largest group being the Chins. The Chin, along with the Kachin and Karen battalions, fought the Japanese and resisted the Burma Independence Army.^[65]

In 1944, after the establishment of the puppet State of Burma under Ba Maw, the Japanese attempted to invade the Chin Hills. Aware of the atrocities committed by the Burma Independence Army and the Japanese, the Chin battalions retreated and entrenched themselves in the Chin Hills.^[66] The Chin Hills battalion and the Chin Levies succeeded in stopping the Burma Independence Army and the 33rd Japanese Army at the battle of Tiddim. This delay was accreddited as making the victory decisivie at the Battle of Kohima and the Battle of Imphal. The Japanese however did managed to occupy the areas of Haka, Falam and Tiddim. The reclaimation by British troops in 1944-1945 saw intense fighting and destruction of villages.^[67]

After World War II, the Crown Colony Scheme, supported by Winston Churchill, was quashed with Clement Attlee's Labour Party entering into power. This scheme was attempted to be revived by the Director of the Frontier Area Administration, H.N.C. Stevenson, to make a United Frontier Union.^[68] Aung San cooperated with the British and the White Paper outlined the long term plan of the future of Burma.^[69] The British would rule for three years for economic recovery and then restore the Legislative Council of Ministerial Burma. After elections, a constitution would be drafted and enforced with dominion status. The White Paper considered the non-Burmese areas such as the Chin Hills as to maintained via the status quo. The states of Chin Hills, Kachin State and Federated Shan States would have a special regime under the Governor. The Governor, Reginald Dorman-Smith led civil servant who were uncooperative with the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League. They instead wished to declare the organisation illegal and to arrest Aung San.^[70] Atlee replaced Dorman-Smith with Major General Hurbert Rance and the White Paper was scrapped with direct negotiations with Aung San instead. The early post-war era highlighted the rights and interests of non-Burmans such as the Chins but in 1946 under Rance the British only considered the creation of a sovereign Burma without any deliberation or representation with the Frontier Areas.^[71]

On the other hand, the Frontier Areas who fought the Japanese expected lenient treatement for political matters in the future of independence. The Chin, Kachin and Karen unlike the Indian and Burmese were willing to remain under British rule. Dorman-Smith had attempted to revive the Crown Colony Scheme of 1941 but the British policymakers appended it to a new idea. Under Reginald Coupland, they argued for a commonwealth of hill areas in both India and Burma consisting of:^[72]

However these did not come to fruition as the United Kingdom was too weak to impose new obligations and negotiations. Atlee vetoed the plan.^[72] H.N.C. Stevenson's plan of the United Frontier Union consisted of:^[73]

This plan was opposed by the Burman nationalists who saw Arakan and Mon as part of Burma when it was conquered by the British.^[73] However, Stevenson had already held a meeting with the frontier area representatives in the Panglong agreement which had been accepted.^[74]

In negotiations with the British, the Burmese opposed Stevenson's United Frontier Union Scheme. The London Talks excluded any representation of the hill people. On Burmese demands for a unified Burma, the British opposed the amalgamation citing that they were bound to consider the wishes of the frontier people as consideration for their efforts in helping the British during World War Two. The British knew that the Frontier Areas opposed union with Burma.^[74] Aung San thus cooperated. He stated that the Non-Burmans, including the Chins had the right to regain their freedom, independence and sovereignty as they were never under Burmese rule. He accepted the Chin people's right to self-determination. Aung San signed the Aung San-Attlee Agreement on 27 January 1947 where the second Panglong Conference would be convened to hear the frontier views on future administration and advance their goals.^[75] However, U Saw and Ba Sein refused to sign the agreement. They argued this agreement would divide Burma. Aung San's actions led to U Saw, Ba Maw, and Paw Tun to form the National Opposition Front claiming that Aung San was collaborating with imperialists as a careerist. Aung San however continued negotiations. The Panglong Conference of February 1947 akcnowledged that freedom would be achieved for the groups with cooperation with the Interim Burmese Government.^[76]

Stevenson opposed Governor Hurburt Rance. Stevenson argued that Rance was attempting to include the Frontier Areas into Burma proper. Rance with Attlee's support retaliated and forced Stevenson to resign before the Second Panglong Conference. The outcome was to be decided and hosted by a HMG observer from London instead. The Chin before attending the Conference held a primary conference at Falam on 28 October 1946. The Chin chiefs, advisors and representatives discussed whether the Chin Hills should remain under the British Governor or join Burma. The Falam Conference passed the resolutions to remain with the Governor and to cooperated with the Shan and kachin. The three representatives chosen for Panglong was Chief Hlur Hmung, Chief Thawng Za Khup and Chief Kio Mang.^[77] The Chiefs expecting Stevenson did not bring their interpreters expecting to converse in the Lai languages with him. Only Za Khup brought his interpreter Vum Kho Hau who was not fluent in Lai. At the conference the Shans had already agreed to cooperated with the Burmese for their independence with a right to secession. The Chin Chiefs clarified tht if they join Burma they want to do it temporarily and then rule their themselves according to precolonial independent status. The Chin leaders expected a commonwealth of independent nation states with full autonomy, legislature, judiciary and administration.^[78] The Chin Chiefs also argued for the establishment of a "Supreme Executive Council of Hill Peoples" (SCOUHP) with full powers on all policy matters between the hill peoples and Burma. They representatives all demanded a right to secession from Burma at any time after independence.^[79]

Aung San, the Chief Minister, of the interim Burmese Government arrived in Panglong on 8 February 1947 and persuaded the representatives to join independent Burma. He promised separate status with full autonomy within Burma, protection of minority rights and privilege of secession. He agreed to put the terms of the Panglong into law to guarantee the outcomes and to alleviate fears of backtracking.^[79] When Vum Kho Pau translated the Lai chiefs, he mistranslated the intentions of the representatives it was argued. He translated the word ram into "district" rather that "country" or "nation-state". This led to the belief that the Chin did not ask for separate status but a district within the union with customary law. Aung San was "surprised" according to Chief Kio Mang.^[79]

The Chiefs were surprised because the Burmans on this notion became favourable to the Chins. Aung San promised schools, hospitals and roads. Aung San further granted the Chin Hills special administrative status in the constitution to maintain their old customary law. This led to the Chin Special Division being made instead of a state within the Union of Burma. The Panglong Agreement, signed by the Frontier Tribes, were not to join Burma but to hasten their right to secession and to gain independence. The Panglong Agreement is celebrated as Union Day in recognition of the nationalities of Burma.^[80]

When the Long Talks formed the Frontier Areas Committee of Enquiry (FACE) the British Government presened the memorandum to the Chins that they would have equal rights and privileges as Bumans and the right to secession under the Panglong Agreement. However, when FACE asked the Chin delegation to join the Union of Burma or become a federation, the Chin chiefs didn't understand the concept of federation. They only expressed a need to live with their own political system and customs with financial asistance from the Union. However, the Chin delegate, Za Hre, suggested the Chin Hills to become part of Ministerial Burma and thus became a Chin Special Division.^[81]

Aung San expressed to the opposition that the right of succession was granted so that by showing sincerity the frontier areas could be made to stay. Aung San fulfilled his promise to codify the Panglong resolutions and legalised it in the 1947 Union Constitution of Burma, Chapter X, Article 201 and 202:^[82]

Chapter (X): The Right of Secession

201. Save as otherwise expressly provided in this Constitution or in any Act of Parliament made under section 199, every state shall have the right to secede from the Union in accordance with the condition hereinafter prescribed.

202. The right of secession shall not be exercised within ten years from the date on which this Constitution comes into operation.

Despite the right to secession being codified, Burma did not become a true federal union. Aung San was assassinated by U Saw on 19 July 1947 and succeeded by U Nu. U Nu redrafted the constitution despite being already approved by the AFPFL in May 1947. The new constitution drafted by U Chan Htun was promulgated by the Interim Government's assembly.^[82]

The new constitution had a bicameral structure. The Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Nationalities. The Chamber of Nationalities would allow unelected chiefs and leaders of the Chin, Shan and Kachin to retain their traditional powers. Eight parliamentary seats were reserved for the six major tribes of the Chin such as the Asho, C'ho, K'ho-mi, Laimi, Mizo and Zomi. This system was problematic. The Mizos were outside of Burma. The Asho were outside of the Chin Hills. The remaining tribes had a democratic council and a hereditary chieftainship structure. The C'ho and K'ho-mi tribes had no hereditary chieftainship system and lacked eligible candidates for this reason.^[83] On 20 February 1948, the Chins who were dissatisfied with the Chin Chiefs made a popular vote to dismantle the system of chieftainship for the Chamber of Nationalities and the local administration. The new system held four seats for the Northern Chin of Haka, Falam, Thlantlanfg and Tiddim and four seats for the Southern Chin of Matupi, Paltewa, Mindat and Kanpalet.^[84]

The newfound democracy in Chin State ended abruptly in 1962 with the onset of military rule under Ne Win in Burma.^[17] The 1974 Burmese constitution granted statehood to Chin State, which had previously been administered as Chin Special Division since Burma's independence in 1948.

Ne Win remained in power until 1988, when nationwide protests against the regime erupted.^[17] These uprisings, commonly known as the 8888 Uprising—named after the date they began, 8 August 1988—were met with a violent crackdown by the military government.^[17] The government's response resulted in the deaths of approximately 3,000 people within a matter of weeks and led to the imprisonment of many more.^[17] It was during this period of resistance that the Chin National Front (CNF) and its armed wing, the Chin National Army (CNA), gained momentum.^[17] In 2012, the CNA negotiated a ceasefire with the Burmese military. In 2015, the CNA became a signatory to the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA).^[85]

Preceding the 1988 pro-democracy uprising, the Chin National Front was established with the Chin National Army in Aizawl, Mizoram (India). It was founded by a Falam Chin, Tial Khal, who was a participant in the Mizo Insurgency. The Champhai Camp of the organisation sought funding with the government of India, taxes of Chin population in Mizoram and integration of rations from the Burmese Democratic Front. As a result, 70 soldiers a year were trained. A second recruitment base was opened on the Bangladesh border in December 1989.^[86] Despite this, half of the soldiers of the CNF suffered from food and medicine defeciency thus making them go into the Chin State to collect rice and bring back to Bangladesh to grow. The CNF remained below 300 fighting strength until the mid 1990s.^[87]

The CNF was unable to establish territorial autonomy. The CNF with lacking funds acquired weapons by ambushing insurgent groups. The CNF also fought against the Zomi Revolutionary Army. The CNF was soon expelled from Mizoram in 1995. To continue, they coerced collection of food and taxes in Chin villages and caused refugees to enter Northeast India. Furthermore, the resentment of the Falam dominated CNF led to opposition communities supplying their rivals. The Tatmadaw procured resources as a result and establishes camps and bases running heroin factories.^[88]

From 1996 to 2003, the CNF became an urban guerrilla organisation.^[88] The CNF recruited from rural groups in the mid 1990s after further funding issues.^[89] After 1995, the CNF became responsive to the Human Rights issues of the Tatmadaw in the cities and launched guerilla attacks. Many of these operations consisted of bombings planted at officers and administrative residences. The guerilla movement sustained itself until 2003 when smuggled weapons trading stopped.^[90] In 1995, the CNF also established the Chin Human Rights Organization to lobby for human rights, democracy and rights resotration of the Chin and other minorities. The organisation sent Cung Bik Ling to the United Nations Working Group of Indigenous Populations. This engagement was argued to have been more effective than the military phase of the CNF.^[91]

From 2004 to the 2021 Myanmar coup d'etat, the CNF operated as an armed NGO. Donations from overseas Chin communities became a new source of funding, but only became significant following the coup.^[92] Following the 2012 ceasefire, the CNF established a base at Camp Victory in Thantlang, Teddim Township.^[93] The administration of the CNF as a broker with the new state was difficult. Education was ineffecient in the BUrmese medium. There were a few mobile clinics functioning and overseas donations helped deliver healthcare, water, electricity, education and food. A justice system was not established and legal disputes were mediated through village councils.^[94]

Chin State voters overwhelmingly voted for the National League for Democracy in the 2020 Myanmar general election.^[13]

Following the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, Chin residents participated in anti-coup protests,^[13] and the CNA resumed fighting against the Burmese armed forces.^[95] Ongoing conflict has displaced 160,000 people – more than one third of Chin State's population – either internally or across the Indian border.^[13] Rival Chin insurgent groups, such as the CNA and the Chin Brotherhood, the latter of which is allied with the Arakan Army, have engaged in infighting.^[13] Many Chins fled to the Indian state of Mizoram following the coup in Myanmar. Despite the Indian government's directives, the Mizoram government sheltered over 10,000 Chin refugees, citing ethnic and historical ties. Mizoram Chief Minister Zoramthanga stated:^[96]

Myanmar areas bordering Mizoram are inhabited by Chin communities who are ethnically our Mizo brethren... Mizoram cannot remain indifferent to their suffering today. India cannot turn a blind eye to this humanitarian crisis unfolding right in front of us in our own backyard.

This sentiment was echoed across the state. The YMA built refugee camps and coordinated donations of food, clothing, and funds from across Mizoram.^[97][98][99]

The Chin peoples are divided into six main tribes, namely the Asho, Cho (Sho), Khumi (M'ro), Laimi, and Zomi, which can be further distinguished by at least 60 different sub-tribal categories.^[100] The Chin have adopted clan names based on their ancestral origins; for instance the Sizang have adopted a common clan name, Siyin.^[9] Chin politics and society remain largely based on tribal affiliation, which has translated into rivalry or division among different Chin communities.^[13]

Chin cuisine is typified by abundant use of vegetables, and meat is typically boiled and served with vegetables.^[9] Rice, corn, and millet are common staple foods.^[9] The Chin have faced severe famines due to an ecological phenomenon called mautam.^[9] The Chin brew a homemade alcohol called zu, which plays a ritual role in Chin culture.^[101] Alcohol abuse is common among male Chin refugees.^[101] Chin elders also consume nicotine juice called thibur, which is carried in small gourd containers.^[101]

There are several traditional dresses such as Matu, Falam, Tedim, Zo, Tapong, Zotung, Mindat, Daa Yindu (Kanpetlet), Mara, etc. The main colors use for these traditional dresses are red, green and black. Accessories such as bracelets, necklaces, hairpins and rings also play a huge role when it comes to traditional clothing as they complete the overall looks of the Chin. Chin people do not wear these clothes in daily life. They wear these on special occasions like Sundays, weddings, Chin National Day and other important occasions.^[102][103]

The Chin celebrate Christian holidays like Easter and Christmas.^[9]

The Chin National Day is celebrated annually on 20 February, which is the day the Chin peoples abolished the slavery system or chieftainship. The first Chin National Day was celebrated in 1951 at Mindat.^[104] People display many traditional dance such as bamboo dance,^[105] sarlamkai (conquest dance), khuangcawi (a lady is lifted by a crowd), ruakhatlak and many other dances from each group. One of the big events on Chin National Day is the traditional wrestling (lai paih).^[106] There is also Miss competition from each town or city in Chin State. Other events, such as fashion shows and singing also take place in Chin National Day.^[107] Traditional food, such as sabuti (hominy corn soup) and chang (rice cake) are served.

Wrestling is a part of the Chins' sporting traditions.^[108]

Chin United F.C. represents the Chin people in Burmese association football. The club play in the Myanmar National League.

The Chin peoples speak a variety of related but mutually unintelligible Kuki-Chin languages, which are conservative in maintaining Proto-Tibeto-Burman phonology, including preservation of many initial and final consonants.^[7] Several Chin languages are facing extinction due to competing local and national languages, such as Lamtuk, which is being displaced by Hakha Chin and Burmese.^[7] Multilingualism is common among the Chin, who invariably speak a native language, a nearby local language, and the national language, like Burmese.^[7][9]

In 2019, the Chin State government tentatively proposed prioritising five Chin languages - Zolai (for Tedim and Tonzang), Laizo (for Falam), Lai (for Hakha and Thantlang), Khumi (for Paletwa), and Kcho (for Mindat and Kanpalet) - to be taught as mother tongues at state schools.^[109]

Ethnologue lists 49 languages in this group, of which 20 contain the word "Chin" in their name.^[110] The following are widely-spoken Chin languages:

• Tedim Chin, with an estimated 411,000 speakers^[111]
• Thado Chin, with an estimated 346,100 speakers^[112]
• Hakha Chin, with an estimated 210,410 speakers^[113]
• Falam Chin, with an estimated 107,900 speakers^[114]
• Asho Chin, with an estimated 174,000 speakers^[115]
• Khumi Chin, with an estimated 64,000 speakers^[116]
• Mara Chin, with an estimated 62,400 speakers^[117]
• Zotung Chin, with an estimated 40,000 speakers^[118]
• Matu Chin, with an estimated 40,000 speakers^[119]
• Dai Chin, with an estimated 40000 to 50000 Speakers in only Chin State.( Note: excluded in other State/Region in Myanmar and Foreign countries)

Historically, the Chin peoples were animists, professing a belief in good and evil spirits that inhabited natural phenomena.^[9] The Chin also worshipped a powerful supreme god, Pathian, who is believed to command the universe.^[9] Gayals were commonly sacrificed during religious rituals.^[9]

In the late 1800s, the first Christian missionaries arrived in Chin State, and began converting the Chin to Christianity.^[20] Due to the work of the Baptist Arthur E. Carson, their efforts were successful, and today the majority of Chin are Christians, with most belonging to Protestant denominations, especially Baptist.^[120][121] Christianity grew from 35% in 1966 to 90% in 2010.^[122] Christian Chins have faced religious persecution from the military government in predominantly Buddhist Myanmar.^[123][124]

Several Chin tribes, including the Asho Chin, are majority Buddhist.^[125] Other Buddhist Kuki-Chin-speaking ethnic groups, like the Taungtha people in Magway Region, do not self-identify as Chin.^[126]

Since the late 20th century, a group of Chin, Kuki, and Mizo peoples have claimed descent from Bnei Menashe, one of the Lost Tribes of Israel and have adopted Judaism.^[127]

Since the 1962 military coup by Ne Win, the Chin—an mostly Christian minority in a predominantly Buddhist Myanmar—have faced systemic ethnic and religious persecution.^[128][129] The Tatmadaw and successive military juntas, including the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) have committed widespread abuses, including forced labor, torture, arbitrary detention, and extrajudicial killings.^[130] Fear of retaliation and restrictions on movement and the press have made it difficult for Chin to speak out.^[131] These conditions have driven many to flee to India, Thailand, and Malaysia, often without legal protection or refugee status.^[132][133]

Myanmar's report to the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) claims legal protections for human rights under its constitution and penal code.^[134] However, these legal guarantees are frequently violated. Several countries, including the United States, Poland, and New Zealand, have called for Myanmar to end abuses against minorities like the Chin.^[135]

Although Myanmar is not party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, it is still bound by other international obligations that protect the right to life.^{[136][137][138]} Despite this, the SPDC and Tatmadaw continue to commit extrajudicial killings in Chin State with impunity.^[139] Human Rights Watch and the Chin Human Rights Organization (CHRO) have documented killings, including children and women, for suspected opposition ties.^[140][141]

Myanmar's legal code prohibits arbitrary arrest and guarantees legal representation, but these rights are often ignored.^[142][136] Chin detainees report being beaten, tortured, and denied basic needs, including clean food and water, while held in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons.^[143][144]

Despite Myanmar's ratification of the 1930 Forced Labour Convention, forced labor remains widespread.^{[145][146][147][138]} Chin civilians are often forced to construct military buildings, carry supplies, or serve as porters under threat of violence.^[148][149] A 2011 study using household interviews found that 92% of Chin households surveyed experienced forced labor, and 76% were forced to build infrastructure. Thirty-six reported detentions.^[150][151]

• Gokhothang, Guite prince from Mualpi, also known as Goukhothang, Go Khaw Thang, Go Khua Thang, or Kokutung (the latter being the name used by the historians Carey and Tuck). He is the only Zomi prince whom the neighboring Meitei (Manipur) kingdom ever acknowledged as Raja (or Ningthou in Metei language). His powerful dominion included over seventy cities, towns, and villages.^[152] He became known as the leader of all Zo people.^[153]
• Pau Cin Hau, Zomi prophet who lived c. 1859 and created a script for the Zo people named Zo tuallai. He also founded the Laipan religion, which was popular among the Zo people before the arrival of American missionaries.
• Khai Kam Suantak (c. 1867), Chin leader that ruled over the largest fiefdom in the Chin Hills. Khai Kam College in Kalemyo was named in his honor, although it had since been renamed Kale College.
• Khan Thuam (d. 1848), Chin chief of the Sukte Clan who ruled over considerable territory and father of Chief Kam Hau.
• Zoramthanga, boxer who won a bronze medal at the 1990 Bombay Boxing World Cup.
• Taik Chun, soldier and recipient of Aung San Thuriya medal, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry and bravery.
• Henry Van Thio, politician and vice-president of Burma.
• Cheery Zahau, human rights and women's right activist, feminist, politician, writer, development and peace leader. She is the founder and leader of "Women's League of Chinland" and winner of UNDP's N-Peace Awards 2017.
• Thet Mon Myint, Burmese Myanmar Academy Award-winning actress
• Benjamin Sum, singer and runner up of Myanmar Idol season 4
• Esther Dawt Chin Sung, singer and winner of Myanmar Idol season 4

• Joshua Van, mixed martial artist who is currently ranked as #1 contender in the UFC flyweight division.

• Chin Student Association
• Kuki

• Sakhong, Lian H. (2003). In Search of Chin Identity: A study in Religion, Politics and Ethnic Identity in Burma (PDF). Denmark: NIAS Press. ISBN 87-91114-15-2. Retrieved 22 November 2025.

Khai, Sing Khaw (1995). Zo People and Their Cultureː a historical, cultural study and critical analysis of Zo and its ethnic tribes. Manipur: Khampu Hatzaw. Retrieved 25 May 2025.

• Lehman, F.K. (1963). The structure of Chin society: a tribal people of Burma adapted to a non-Western civilization. Illinois: Illinois Studies in Anthropology. Retrieved 28 December 2025.
• Pau, Pum Khan (2018). "Reconfigured frontier: British policy towards the Chin-Lushai Hills, 1881-1898" (PDF). The NEHU Journal. XVI (1): 1–17. Retrieved 24 November 2025.
• Pau, Pum Khan (2020). Indo-Burma Frontier and the Making of the Chin Hills. London: Routeledge. ISBN 978-0-429-32470-3.
• Tong, Lei (2025). Ethnic Insurgency of Myanmar: Resilience and Fragility. Northern Illinois University (Doctor of Philosophy thesis). Illinois. ProQuest 3246076852. Retrieved 20 November 2025 – via ProQuest.

Media related to Chin people at Wikimedia Commons

• Tongdot English – Zomi/Chin Online dictionary
• English – Zomi/Chin Online dictionary
• Human Rights Watch Report on Persecution of Chins
• Report on Chin People Seeking Refuge in Mizoram Archived 4 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine