The Alliance of Sahel States (French: Alliance des États du Sahel; AES), also known as the Confederation of Sahel States (French: Confédération des États du Sahel) or AES Confederation, is a political and economic union in the Sahel region of Africa that includes Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger.[4][5][6][7] It originated as a mutual defense pact in 2023.[7][8][9][10] All three member states are under the control of military juntas following a string of successful coups.[11][12][13] The confederation's stated goal is the pooling of resources to build energy and communications infrastructure, establish a common market, implement a monetary union under a proposed currency, allow free movement of persons, enable industrialization, and invest in agriculture, mines and the energy sector, with the end goal of federalizing into a single sovereign state.[14][15]

The confederation is against neo-colonialism and ongoing French influence in their countries, and its members have demonstrated this with acts such as downgrading the status of the French language,[16] renaming of colonial street names,[17][18] and removal of the French Revolution from school curricula.[19] The AES is against many policies of the French government and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS),[5][20][21][22] which all three member countries left in 2025. In 2024, the AES cut off military relations with Western powers and replaced Western troops on their territory with Russian forces.[11][14] It has also cut diplomatic ties and expelled ambassadors from some Western countries following critical statements regarding its rapprochement with Russia.[23]

The bloc's economic growth is high,[24] with GDP growing by 6.51% in 2024 and Niger achieving one of the fastest growing economies in the world and in Africa in 2024,[25] though nations of the AES are among the least developed in the world as measured by the Human Development Index.[26]

The region faces numerous challenges, including prolonged periods of ineffective governance, external geopolitical interference,[27] jihadist groups and insurgencies,[28] and imbalanced trade agreements. Amnesty International has accused AES governments of engaging in routine human rights violations including arbitrary detentions, forced disappearances,[29] and massacres of civilians.[30] AES states have all pledged to suspend military rule and return to civilian rule, but these plans have been delayed in each of these countries as the governments work towards increased integration.[22]

Member states

Demographic and development overview of AES member states[31][32]
Country Capital Official language Area
(km2)		 Population (thousands) Population density
(per km2)		 Human Development Index (HDI)
201020252010202520102025
 Burkina Faso Ouagadougou Mooré, Dyula 274,200 17,11424,451 62.489.1 0.3880.451
 Mali Bamako Bambara 1,240,192 16,51524,790 13.320.0 0.3990.467
 Niger Niamey Hausa 1,267,000 18,50429,126 14.623.0 0.3770.439
Economic overview of AES member states [31]
Country Nominal GDP (millions USD) PPP GDP (millions Intl$.) Nominal GDP per capita (USD) PPP GDP per capita (Intl$.)
20102025201020252010202520102025
 Burkina Faso 10,11827,056 27,03872,820 5911,107 1,5802,978
 Mali 10,69824,821 30,84483,613 6481,001 1,8683,373
 Niger 10,20621,874 21,54372,126 552751 1,1642,476

History

Regional insurgencies and successive coups

Areas where the Islamic State – Sahel Province operates, July 2021

The Sahel has been the site of an ongoing jihadist insurgency since 2003, which has led to many conflicts in the region, such as the Mali War and the Boko Haram insurgency. These have caused instability and dissatisfaction with governments in the region.

In the 2020 Malian coup d'état, Assimi Goïta and the National Committee for the Salvation of the People seized power in Mali after overthrowing the elected president, Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta.[33] Goïta later led a second coup in 2021, deposing interim president Bah Ndaw who had been nominated to lead a transitional military government.[34]

A few months later, in the 2021 Guinean coup d'état, the National Committee of Reconciliation and Development removed elected president Alpha Condé and installed Mamady Doumbouya as transitional president.[35] Guinea is not a member of the AES, but has been offering diplomatic support to the confederation.

In 2022, Mali withdrew from the internationally backed G5 Sahel alliance. Niger and Burkina Faso did so in 2023, leading to announcement of the dissolution of the framework by its last two members Chad and Mauritania three days later.[6]

A faction of Burkina Faso's military overthrew their existing military government in the September 2022 coup d'état, installing Ibrahim Traoré over Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba, who had come to power in the January 2022 coup d'état which toppled the France-aligned government of president Roch Marc Christian Kaboré.[36]

In July 2023, the National Council for the Safeguard of the Homeland removed the elected government of Niger's Mohamed Bazoum, installing Omar Tiani and a new junta in the 2023 coup d'état.[37]

Withdrawal of Western forces

In 2022, Mali's military government terminated defense agreements with France and accused French troops of failing to contain Islamist insurgencies and interfering in domestic politics.[38][39] In January 2023, Burkina Faso's military government formally ended its military agreement with France and demanded the withdrawal of 400 French special forces from their country within a month.[40] This was the result of growing nationalist and anti-colonial sentiment in addition to anti-French protests in the country.[41][42] In July 2023, Niger's military government demanded France withdraw its 1,500 troops. French President Emmanuel Macron initially resisted but eventually announced a full withdrawal by the end of 2023.[43][44] France's ambassador was also expelled, signaling a complete diplomatic breakdown.[45]

While the U.S. presence in Niger was more counterterrorism-focused, it was also pushed out.[46] Niger had been a key U.S. ally and hosted drone bases with over 1000 troops and special forces.[47] Niger revoked its military agreement with the United States in March 2024 and ordered the withdrawal of all U.S. forces.[48] This led to the closure of Air Base 101 in Niamey and the $110‑million Air Base 201 drone facility in Agadez.[49][50] The withdrawal was completed later that year.[51][52] Mali and Burkina Faso, which had previously expelled French forces and deepened ties with Russia, similarly ended U.S. military cooperation, leaving no American presence in any AES state. The loss of the Niger drone bases was a major setback for U.S. power projection and surveillance capabilities in the Sahel.[53]

The United States has since been working to reset relations and to create new military partnerships with the AES countries.[54]

Nigerien crisis and departure from ECOWAS

All three of the alliance's member states were suspended by ECOWAS shortly after the ousting of their elected governments. After the coup in Niger, ECOWAS threatened to intervene militarily and restore president Bazoum's government, resulting in a regional crisis. The juntas of Mali and Burkina Faso promised military aid to Niger in the event of an intervention, while Guinea's provided diplomatic support. The promises of military aid resulted in the creation of the Alliance of Sahel States as a mutual defense bloc for the three nations, averting an ECOWAS intervention.[9] The West Africa Peoples Organisation denounced the proposed intervention, calling it a "pretext to carry out imperialist plans to keep Niger (rich in mineral resources, notably uranium and hydrocarbons) continually in the imperialist fold."[55][56]

On 28 January 2024, the three countries announced in a joint statement their intention to withdraw from ECOWAS.[57] ECOWAS appointed three mediators to begin dialogues with the three countries.[58] On 15 December 2024, the Conference of Heads of State of ECOWAS adopted an exit transition period for Niger, Burkina Faso and Mali, which was to begin 29 January 2025 and end on 29 July 2025.[59][60] The AES rejected the timetable extension proposed by ECOWAS and said it would adhere to its January 2025 withdrawal timeline.[61]

On 29 January 2025, Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger formally withdrew from ECOWAS after having provided the required 1-year notice.[62] On 29 January, to consolidate their exit from ECOWAS and strengthen their alliance, the three countries began circulating new AES passports and announced a new unified 5,000-strong military unit.[63]

AES countries were all founding members of ECOWAS in May 1975.[62] The withdrawal has resulted in ECOWAS losing 76 million of its 446 million people and a significant portion of its total geographical land area.[64][65] The AES is now geographically larger than ECOWAS, covering 2,781,392 km2 compared to ECOWAS's adjusted 2,087,596 km2.[66]

Formalization of the Confederation

In May 2024 at a meeting in Niamey, representatives of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger finalized a draft text for the creation of the AES.[67] In July 2024, at a summit in Niamey, the AES heads of state signed a confederation treaty to strengthen the existing mutual defense pact and released a 25-point communique.[21][68] This included agreement on a one-year rotating presidency, with Assimi Goïta, junta leader and interim president of Mali, commencing his term on the same day. It was agreed that the first joint AES parliamentary summit would be hosted in Burkina Faso.[69]

On 22 February 2025, AES ministers officially launched the flag of the AES[70] after its validation by the heads of state of the member countries.[71] As of January 2025, AES ministers are working on the creation of a joint parliament.[72]

Goïta handed over to Ibrahim Traoré as President of the AES on December 24, 2025.[73]

Relations with the West African Economic and Monetary Union

AES countries have not shown their readiness to break ties with the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU, also known by its French acronym UEMOA), which is headquartered in Burkina Faso. Leaving UEMOA is a more complex decision than leaving ECOWAS. UEMOA member countries share a single currency, the CFA franc, which is based on a convertibility guarantee by the French Treasury. If a country leaves UEMOA, it will have to recover its foreign exchange reserves, currently divided between the UEMOA Central Bank in Abidjan (50%) and the French Treasury (50%).[74] Nonetheless, proposals have been made for a joint AES central bank and a new currency to replace the CFA franc.[75]

The AES adopted a confederal levy on imports originating outside the UEMOA to support operations of the newly created AES regional development bank.[76]

Initiatives

The Confederation of Sahel States has announced various measures towards its stated goals of regional stability, economic independence, and self reliance.[77]

Economic integration

Proposals have been made regarding a common central bank jointly with the introduction of a new currency to replace the CFA franc.[78][75][15] In an effort to boost agricultural and energy self-reliance, joint infrastructure programs are envisioned, and export controls on grain towards the rest of ECOWAS have been implemented.[79][80][81] Energy regulators from Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger met in Bamako in May 2025 to harmonise their policies on energy security and promote renewable energy.[82]

Investment bank

Plans for an AES bank were first announced in May 2025.[83] In December 2025, the AES formally established the Confederal Investment and Development Bank (BCID-AES) as its financial arm. The bank was created following the signing of its founding charter in Bamako under AES President Assimi Goïta. The announcement was made by Burkina Faso's Minister of Economy and Finance, Aboubakar Nacanabo.[84][85]

The BCID-AES was launched with an initial capital of 500 billion CFA francs (approximately US$895 million) and is financed through contributions from the three member states. Each country is expected to allocate around 5% of annual tax revenues to the bank, supplemented by a confederal levy to strengthen its resources. The bank's mandate is to mobilize resources for priority projects in infrastructure (particularly road networks), agriculture and food security, energy and regional interconnections, and private-sector initiatives aligned with national development priorities. The bank follows the model of regional development institutions like the West African Development Bank (BOAD) and the Development Bank of Central African States (BDEAC), which finance public and private investments across their member states. The creation of the BCID-AES is a step toward financial sovereignty, one of the four pillars guiding the AES along with collective security, economic integration, and cultural and educational identity.[83][86]

Joint military force

A joint AES military force was first announced when Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso left ECOWAS in January 2025. In December 2025, the AES launched a new 5,000 member military force to combat Islamist insurgencies and transnational crime across the Sahel. The United Force of the Alliance of Sahel States (FU‑AES) was formally inaugurated at an air force base in Bamako on December 20, 2025, with AES President Goïta overseeing the ceremony. The force unites troops from all three countries and integrates air, intelligence, and ground coordination to conduct operations against extremist groups in the tri‑border region. Malian general Daouda Traoré was appointed commander. The headquarters is based in Niamey.[87]

AES TV Channel

On 22 December 2025, the AES officially launched AES TV, the dedicated regional television channel of the AES. The inauguration, in Bamako was marked by a ceremony attended by the leaders of all three AES countries. The channel's mission is to strengthen communication among AES member states, highlight national achievements and public policies, promote regional cooperation, and project a unified Sahel voice on the international stage. Beyond news, AES TV aims to showcase cultural, political, and social initiatives to deepen mutual understanding across the region.[88] The launch is a strategic milestone for the AES, offering a unified media platform that enhances the visibility of AES initiatives, improves communication between governments and citizens, and reinforces a shared regional identity.[89]

AES TV is carried on multiple satellites, including Intelsat 37e @ 18°W and Intelsat 35e @ 34.5°W.[90]

Common culture

On 5 February 2025, the AES states established a "common cultural policy".[91]

Judicial cooperation and regional court

AES ministers met in May 2025 to establish judicial cooperation within the AES. The meeting, chaired by Malian Prime Minister Abdoulaye Maïga, focused on creating a common legal framework to address transnational challenges, including insecurity, arms proliferation, and money laundering. The goal was to enhance judicial convergence without unifying laws and to make systems interoperable while improving governance, legal protections, and institutional stability.[92] Participants proposed the establishment of a regional criminal court aimed at addressing terrorism, violent extremism, and human rights violations in the Sahel region. This initiative shows a commitment to unified judicial responses against security and governance challenges in the region. A decision has not yet been made on the location of the proposed court. A high-security prison of "international standards" will also be built to house convicted prisoners.[93][94]

Withdrawal from the ICC

In September 2025, the AES criticized the International Criminal Court as "a neo-colonial imperialist tool" and announced plans to withdraw from it in favor of "indigenous mechanisms for the consolidation of peace and justice".[95] Burundi, the first African country to leave the ICC in October 2017 citing the Court's alleged bias against African leaders, expressed support for the decision of the AES.[96] In July 2026, the ICC confirmed that the AES states had initiated the one-year withdrawal process.[97]

Food security

The AES has created the Alliance of Agricultural Seed Producers of the Sahel (APSA-Sahel) to strengthen regional food sovereignty and promote seed systems locally adapted to the Sahelian climate. The initiative is designed to reduce dependence on foreign seed imports, promote indigenous seed varieties, and increase seed research, production, and distribution in the Sahel.[98] The AES is also developing a confederation‑wide joint purchasing agency to better regulate cereal markets, build a shared grain reserve, and strengthen food security across the region. AES President Assimi Goïta announced the initiative in December 2025.[99]

AES Games

From 21 to 28 June 2025, Mali hosted the first Alliance of Sahel States Games. More than 500 professional athletes from AES states competed in soccer, traditional wrestling, archery, and other events. The games are part of an effort by the AES to build solidarity under their confederation.[100]

Other measures

Roaming charges for telephone communications between the three countries have been abolished.[101][102][103] A joint biometric passport for AES citizens was introduced in January 2025.[104][105][106] At the end of March 2025, AES countries introduced a common customs duty of 0.5% on imports from outside the AES.[107] In May 2025, AES culture ministers validated the adoption of the official anthem of the confederation.[108] Experts from the road authorities of Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger met in May 2025 to define a common approach to road safety.[109]

Anti-French approach

All three AES countries took considerable steps to downgrade French colonial influence. On 31 March 2025, Niger replaced French with Hausa as its national language.[110]

Resources

The AES countries are resource rich.[111] For example, Niger is among the world's biggest uranium exporters and for many years has been a major uranium exporter to the EU.[112][113] Some major known resources in AES territory include:

Country Natural Resources[66] Other Resources
Niger uranium, coal, iron ore, tin, phosphates, gold, molybdenum, gypsum, salt, petroleum, copper, lithium[114]
Burkina Faso gold, manganese, zinc, limestone, marble, phosphates, pumice, salt, lithium,[114] copper[111] cotton[115]
Mali[a] gold, phosphates, kaolin, salt, limestone, uranium, gypsum, granite, hydropower, lithium[116][117] cotton[118]

The AES is renegotiating relationships with Western and Chinese companies to assert greater control over resources and operations.[111][119] In 2025, some mining assets within the AES were nationalized to increase government ownership in industrial mines operated by foreign entities and to boost earnings from mineral wealth.[120][119] French firms are navigating challenges,[121] with Orano and TotalEnergies under scrutiny[114] and Air France seeking to resume suspended operations.[122][123][124] Canadian companies are also impacted: GoviEX has had its uranium licenses revoked in Niger[125][126] and Barrick Gold is renegotiating terms in Mali.[127][128]

Chinese companies, including the China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) and Zijin Mining Group, are also facing challenges, with CNNC targeted for mining contract renegotiations and Zijin working to meet AES sovereignty goals. In March 2025, Niger requested top local officials of China National Petroleum Corporation, Zinder Refining Company and the West African Gas Pipeline Company (responsible for the construction and operation of the Niger–Benin Oil Pipeline) depart the country due to contract issues.[129][130]

Foreign relations

France

After having expelled French troops in 2022 and 2023, AES states in March 2025 further distanced themselves from France by announcing their decisions to withdraw from the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), an international organization established in 1970 in Niamey, Niger, to promote the French language and encourage cooperation among French-speaking nations. Although the three AES countries are founding members of the OIF, they were suspended from the organization following the coups that brought military leadership to power, and consider the organization "a politically manipulated instrument".[131][132] Anti-French in outlook, the countries removed French as an official language in favour of native tongues, and renamed colonial street names. Mali also suspended teaching of the French Revolution in schools.[133]

United States

On 16 December 2025, the United States announced an expanded travel ban affecting several countries, including the AES nations.[134] The ban, starting on 1 January 2026, was justified on the grounds of national security, terrorism risks, visa overstays, and concerns about information sharing. In response, the AES countries invoked the principle of reciprocity and imposed their own travel restrictions on U.S. citizens.[135]

On 8 January 2026, the AES strongly condemned and denounced the United States's "act of aggression" against Venezuela and the illegal abduction of Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro and his wife.[136][137][138]

Relations with neighbors

ECOWAS

Details of how ECOWAS will treat AES citizens are to be worked out, but until further notice ECOWAS continues to recognize passports and identity cards bearing the ECOWAS logo held by citizens from Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso.[64] AES citizens continue to enjoy the right of visa-free movement, residence, and establishment in accordance with ECOWAS protocols[139] and goods and services from the three countries will be treated under the ECOWAS Trade Liberalisation Scheme (ETLS) and investment policy until further notice.[140]

Chad

Chad has been working to strengthen relationships with AES countries to enhance regional security and counter-terrorism efforts.[141][81] Like the AES countries, Chad has ended its defense cooperation agreement with France.[142] In May 2025, the Chadian Minister of Communications and government spokesperson stated: "I think it would be a good thing for Chad to join the Alliance of Sahel States."[143]

Guinea

Mamady Doumbouya's government in Guinea, like those of the AES states, is a military junta that seized power in a coup d'état. Guinea has ignored border restrictions imposed by ECOWAS and given the AES access to its ports, which allowed Mali to import Russian grain and fertilizer.[144]

Senegal

Senegal's President Bassirou Diomaye Faye has been urging both ECOWAS and the AES states to engage in dialogue and work together to address common challenges such as terrorism, climate change, and poverty.[145]

Togo

Togo has been actively collaborating with AES member countries on security and economic initiatives.[141] In January 2025, Togo's Foreign Minister Robert Dussey announced that the Togolese government had not ruled out joining the AES, calling it "not impossible."[146][147] In March 2025, Dussey reaffirmed that Togo was considering joining the AES.[148] This coincided with a poll published in March 2025 stating the majority of Togolese favor their country joining the AES.[149]

The AES and Togo are working to establish an interconnected customs area. This would allow the landlocked AES countries to use Togo's Lomé port without large tariffs. Use of ports has been a source of tension between the AES and the coastal countries in ECOWAS.[150][151]

Togo and Burkina Faso signed an agreement to eliminate roaming charges for incoming calls between the two countries starting 30 May 2025.[152]

Ghana

While president-elect John Dramani Mahama, elected on 7 December 2024, proposed an initiative to support the AES in combating terrorism.[153] He urged neighboring countries and international organizations, including ECOWAS, to address the crisis in the Sahel.[153] Mahama stated that the instability threatens not only the Sahel but all of West Africa. He called on countries like Ghana, Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, and Benin to play a more active role in supporting the region.[153] On 21 January 2025, Ghana appointed a special envoy to the Confederation of Sahel States, Larry Gbevlo-Lartey, who was tasked with bridging Ghana's relations with AES states.[154]

Algeria

The Algerian government has previously played a role as mediator in Mali's internal conflicts, especially with Tuareg rebel groups in northern Mali, but recent developments have distanced the two sides.[155] A Malian drone was shot down near the Algerian border on 31 March 2025. Mali's Prime Minister denied Algerian claims that the drone had violated Algerian airspace, adding that Mali would file a complaint with international bodies. The AES called the act a violation of international law and "proof" of state-sponsored terrorism by Algeria. [156] Mali withdrew its ambassador to Algeria over the issue, stating: "The destruction of the drone has the effect, if not the aim of hindering the neutralization of armed groups that have claimed responsibility for terrorist acts."[157]

Foreign partners

The AES has been working to diminish the influence and control of former colonial power France over its resources, territory, diplomatic relations, and trade.[158] As part of this realignment, AES states have been seeking new partnerships to fill the vacuum left by France's exit. This has resulted in an intention to increase economic and security cooperation with Russia, Belarus, Myanmar, Turkey, China, Iran, Azerbaijan, North Korea,[159] and Afghanistan.[160][161]

Russian involvement notably includes a joint satellite program with Roscosmos,[162][deprecated source?] and military assistance from Wagner Group mercenaries and later the Russian Africa Corps.[163] In June 2025, Russia signed nuclear cooperation agreements with Burkina Faso and Mali for the peaceful use of atomic energy, infrastructure development, and energy security. The Burkina Faso–Russia Agreement, finalized during the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum, includes the construction of a nuclear power plant, developing regulations, and training specialists.[164] Rosatom also pledged scholarships and technical support, aiming to address Burkina Faso's severe electricity shortage. The Mali–Russia Agreement, signed during Assimi Goïta's visit to Russia, includes nuclear infrastructure, safety regulations, training, and applications in medicine, agriculture, and industry. The agreement is expected to boost Mali's energy autonomy and reduce reliance on imports.[165]

Turkey's foreign, defense, and energy ministers met with their counterparts in Niger to discuss new deals in the areas of security and defense, trade, energy, and mining on 17 July 2024.[166][167] Turkish Sadat military contractors operate in Niger as of January 2025.[168]

Iran and Niger signed a joint cooperation agreement during the third meeting of their Joint Economic Committee on the sidelines of the Iran Expo 2025 in April 2025.[169]

Accusations of destabilization

The leaders of the AES have publicly accused Western countries (especially France) of actions to undermine their security, sovereignty, and political stability. These allegations have become more prominent since the three states expelled French military forces from their territory and withdrew from ECOWAS. Their accusations include claims that Western actors have:

  • Supported or facilitated the activities of armed groups in the region[170][171][172]
  • Interfered with regional security initiatives[173]
  • Engaged in covert actions aimed at weakening AES governments[174][175][176]
  • Sought to maintain influence in the Sahel through political or economic pressure[177]
  • Supported networks involved in political or security-related destabilization[178][179]

These allegations form part of the AES governments’ stated rationale for distancing themselves from Western military partnerships and pursuing alternative security and diplomatic arrangements. Western governments, including France, have consistently denied these accusations.

The AES has expressed strong opposition to Ukrainian support of rebels in the Sahel after comments by Ukrainian officials in August 2024 stating they had supported Jihadists in an ambush that killed Malian soldiers.[180][181][182] Mali and Niger subsequently cut diplomatic ties with Ukraine.[183][184] The AES has called on the United Nations to take action against Ukraine and accused Ukraine of supporting terrorism in the Sahel. Amid the dispute between Mali and Ukraine, Sweden’s ambassador to Mali accused the Malian government of supporting an “illegal Russian war” in Ukraine, and Sweden halted planned financial assistance to Mali. Mali responded by expelling the Swedish ambassador and ending their diplomatic engagement.[23]

Destabilization‑related detentions

AES authorities have announced several arrests in recent years involving individuals they accuse of involvement in destabilization efforts. Notable cases include:

  • Yann Vezilier, an agent of French foreign intelligence service DGSE, was detained by Malian authorities in August 2025 and accused of involvement in espionage and destabilization activities.[185][186][179] French officials rejected the allegations. He remained in custody throughout the following year and, on 6 June 2026, was sentenced to 20 years in prison for espionage and attempting to undermine state security.[187][188]
  • Paul‑Henri Sandaogo Damiba, former transitional president of Burkina Faso, was extradited from Togo to Burkina Faso in January 2026. He faces accusations from Burkinabè authorities of involvement in attempted coups following his removal from power in 2022.[189][190][191][192] The case remains subject to ongoing legal and political processes, and the individuals involved deny wrongdoing.
  • The country director of the International NGO Safety Organisation (INSO) was arrested in Burkina Faso in July 2025 and accused (along with his team) of espionage and using NGO activities as a cover for intelligence gathering. The incident intensified government suspicion toward foreign NGOs operating in the Sahel. Burkina Faso had suspended INSO's operations, alleging the organization collected sensitive data without authorization and labeling the detained staff an “espionage network,” a claim INSO rejected. After several months in detention, the Burkinabè authorities released all eight INSO staff members, including the director. Their release appears to have resulted from quiet diplomatic negotiations rather than a formal prosecution. INSO has denied that the organisation or its staff have been involved in espionage.[193][194][195][196][197][198]

Symbols

The flag of the AES was officially approved by AES heads of state prior to its unveiling on 22 February 2025, in Bamako.[199][200] The flag features the logo of the AES, which includes an orange sun above a baobab tree. Below the tree, a group of silhouetted figures is depicted standing together. The design includes an outline of the three member territories, shown without internal borders, set against a green background.[201][202][199] The color green symbolizes hope, prosperity, and renewal, and also represents the region's vast natural resources, which are seen as a foundation for future shared prosperity.[203][202][200] The silhouetted figures symbolize unity between Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso.[199]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Bauxite, iron ore, manganese, tin, and copper deposits are known but not exploited.

References

  1. ↑ "Burkina, Mali et Niger: l'hymne de l'AES joué pour la première fois dans les palais présidentiels" [Burkina, Mali and Niger: AES anthem played for the first time in presidential palaces] (in French). 10 June 2025. Retrieved 3 July 2025.
  2. 1 2 "The World Factbook". cia.gov. Retrieved 7 June 2024.Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: CIA World Factbook
  3. 1 2 "World Economic Outlook database: April 2024". imf.org. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
  4. ↑ "Alliance of Sahel States". UIA Global Civil Society Database. uia.org. Brussels, Belgium: Union of International Associations. Yearbook of International Organizations Online. 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2025.
  5. 1 2 "West Africa bloc warns of 'disintegration' as juntas form 'Confederation of Sahel States'". France 24. 8 July 2024. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  6. 1 2 "Chad, Mauritania pave way for dissolution of G5 Sahel alliance". Al Jazeera. 6 December 2023. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
  7. 1 2 "Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger sign mutual defense pact". Le Monde. 16 September 2023. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
  8. ↑ "Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso establish Sahel security alliance". Al Jazeera. 16 September 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  9. 1 2 "Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso sign Sahel security pact". Reuters. 16 September 2023. Archived from the original on 16 September 2023. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
  10. ↑ "Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso military leaders establish security alliance". France 24. 16 September 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  11. 1 2 "Russia's Wagner Group expands into Africa's Sahel with a new brand". CNBC. 12 February 2024. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
  12. ↑ "West African coup juntas threaten to quit regional block: What it means". CNBC. 8 February 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
  13. ↑ Bhattacharya, Samir (1 March 2024). "The Alliance of Sahel States: A regional crisis in troubled West Africa". Observer Research Foundation. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
  14. 1 2 "Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso: How a triumvirate of military leaders are redrawing West Africa's map". France 24. 12 July 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2024.
  15. 1 2 "Économie Afrique de L'Ouest Mali, Burkina, Niger: une monnaie commune est-elle crédible ?". Jeune Afrique (in French). 12 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  16. ↑ "Niger downgrades French as it distances from its colonial past with a new official language". Business Insider Africa. 8 April 2025. Retrieved 13 May 2026.
  17. ↑ "Mali Junta Renames Colonial French Street Names". Barrons. Agence France-Presse. 18 December 2024. Retrieved 7 August 2026.
  18. ↑ "New wave of anti-colonial populism sweeps Francophone Africa ". Quartz. 6 June 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2026.
  19. ↑ "Mali suspends teaching of French revolution in schools". African Press Agency. 10 October 2025. Retrieved 13 May 2026.
  20. ↑ "Breakaway junta confederation undermines ECOWAS summit". France 24. 7 July 2024. Retrieved 9 July 2024.
  21. 1 2 "Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso military leaders sign new pact, rebuff ECOWAS". Al Jazeera. 6 July 2024. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
  22. 1 2 Vo, Sunny (25 January 2025). "Junta Rule in the Sahel: Decolonization and Destabilization". Harvard International Review. Retrieved 20 February 2025.
  23. 1 2 "Mali ousts Swedish ambassador amid strained relations with the West". Associated Press. 9 August 2024. Retrieved 5 November 2024.
  24. ↑ "Countries by GDP Growth 2025 - StatisticsTimes.com". statisticstimes.com. Retrieved 13 May 2026.
  25. ↑ "Africa dominates list of the world's 20 fastest-growing economies in 2024—African Development Bank says in macroeconomic report". African Development Bank Group. 16 February 2024. Retrieved 13 May 2026.
  26. ↑ "Human Development Index (HDI) by Country 2025". World Population Review. Retrieved 24 May 2025.
  27. ↑ "Niger coup: Is France to blame for instability in West Africa?". BBC News. 6 August 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2025.
  28. ↑ Plummer, Robert (28 July 2023). "Niger coup: Simple guide to what's happening". BBC News. Retrieved 25 May 2025.
  29. ↑ "Burkina Faso 2024". Amnesty International. Retrieved 24 May 2025.
  30. ↑ "Mali 2024". Amnesty International. Retrieved 24 May 2025.
  31. 1 2 "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  32. ↑ "Human Development Report 2025". United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  33. ↑ "Mali Coup Soldiers Take to Airwaves, Promise Elections". The New York Times. Associated Press. 19 August 2020. Archived from the original on 23 August 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
  34. ↑ "Mali: Bah N'Daw démissionne, Assimi Goïta devient président". Jeune Afrique (in French). 26 May 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  35. ↑ Samb, Saliou (6 September 2021). "Elite Guinea army unit says it has toppled president". Reuters. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  36. ↑ "Burkina: Ibrahim Traoré proclamé président, Damiba destitué". Jeune Afrique (in French). 30 September 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
  37. ↑ "Niger general Tchiani named head of transitional government after coup". Al Jazeera. 28 July 2023. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
  38. ↑ "France completes withdrawal from Mali as last army unit pulls out". euronews. 16 August 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  39. ↑ "France Announces Military Withdrawal from Mali". Voice of America. 17 February 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  40. ↑ "France agrees to pull troops from Burkina Faso – DW – 01/25/2023". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  41. ↑ "France to Pull Troops From Burkina Faso Within a Month: Ministry". Voice of America. 25 January 2023. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  42. ↑ "France to 'respect' Burkina Faso's request and pull troops – DW – 01/25/2023". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  43. ↑ "France completes withdrawal from Niger". Associated Press. Associated Press. 22 December 2023. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  44. ↑ "What will France's troop withdrawal mean for Niger? – DW – 10/06/2023". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  45. ↑ "France plans to close Niger embassy, diplomatic sources say". France 24. 21 December 2023. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  46. ↑ "US hands last base in Niger to military junta". Associated Press. Associated Press. 5 August 2024. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  47. ↑ "US agrees to withdraw troops from key drone base in Niger". France 24. 20 April 2024. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  48. ↑ "Niger's junta revokes military agreement with US". 17 March 2024. Retrieved 9 February 2026.
  49. ↑ Oluwole, Victor (3 May 2024). "Russian troops have entered base housing US military forces in Niger". Business Insider Africa. Retrieved 9 February 2026.
  50. ↑ "Russian trainers move to a Niger airbase where some US troops remain". AP News. 2 May 2024. Retrieved 9 February 2026.
  51. ↑ "US military says withdrawal from Niger is complete". France 24. 16 September 2024. Retrieved 9 February 2026.
  52. ↑ Banchereau, Mark (5 August 2024). "US hands over its last military base in Niger to the ruling junta". AP News. Retrieved 9 February 2026.
  53. ↑ Tilsley, Paul (3 November 2025). "Niger fallout under Biden leaves US troops 'blind' in battle with terror groups". Fox News. Retrieved 9 February 2026.
  54. ↑ Adeyemi, Segun (4 February 2026). "US moves to re-engage Sahel juntas as Russia tightens grip on Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso". Business Insider Africa. Retrieved 9 February 2026.
  55. ↑ "A Declaration from the West Africa Peoples Organisation (WAPO): On ECOWAS War in Niger". International Peoples' Assembly. 2 August 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2025.
  56. ↑ "A declaration from West Africa Peoples Organization on Niger". Workers World. 7 August 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2025.
  57. ↑ "Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger quit ECOWAS". Deutsche Welle. 28 January 2024. Archived from the original on 29 January 2024. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
  58. ↑ "ECOWAS Resident Representative in Burkina Faso Exchanges Views with the New German Ambassador to Burkina Faso". ECOWAS (in French). 22 July 2024. Retrieved 11 August 2025.
  59. ↑ Asadu, Chinedu (15 December 2024). "West Africa regional bloc approves exit timeline for 3 coup-hit member states". The Independent. Retrieved 11 August 2025.
  60. ↑ Onje, Ojochenemi (16 December 2024). "ECOWAS gives six-month grace period to Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali to reconsider exit". BusinessDay. Lagos, Nigeria. Retrieved 28 December 2024.
  61. ↑ Nibramich, Pawla (24 December 2024). "Sahel Alliance Rejects ECOWAS Withdrawal Timeline, Accuses Foreign Interference". Medafrica Times. Retrieved 31 December 2024.
  62. 1 2 Odeyemi, Joshua (29 January 2025). "Thousands Rally As Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali Exit Ecowas". Daily Trust. Retrieved 30 January 2025.
  63. ↑ Cheman, Melissa. "Three Sahel nations exit West African bloc as regional politics shift". ModernGhana. Retrieved 30 January 2025.
  64. 1 2 Ewokor, Chris (29 January 2025). "Ecowas: What changes as Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger leave the West African bloc?". BBC News. Retrieved 30 January 2025.
  65. ↑ Husson, Sylvie; Pereira, Julie. "Mali, Niger And Burkina Faso Leave ECOWAS". Barron's. Retrieved 20 February 2025.
  66. 1 2 "Countries - The World Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 25 January 2025.
  67. ↑ "Mali, Burkina Faso et Niger finalisent l'Alliance des États du Sahel". Jeune Afrique (in French). 18 May 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
  68. ↑ "Sommet des chefs d'Etat de l'AES: Le traité instituant la "Confédération AES" adopté". Le Faso (in French). 7 July 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2024.
  69. ↑ "Fin des travaux du 1er Sommet des Chefs d'État de l'Alliance des États du Sahel: Les Chefs d'Etat entérinent la création de la Confédération Alliance des Etats du Sahel (AES)". Le Sahel (in French). 5 August 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2025.
  70. ↑ Mwangi, Nicholas (5 March 2025). "Sahel alliance unveils new flag as regional bloc moves toward greater integration". Peoples Dispatch. Retrieved 26 March 2025.
  71. ↑ "Le Mali, le Niger et le Burkina Faso ont présenté le drapeau de l'AES". Voice of America (in French). 22 February 2025. Retrieved 22 February 2025.
  72. ↑ Laplace, Manon; Diallo, Fatoumata (29 January 2025). "CFA franc, passports, joint force: What are the Sahel States' plans after split with ECOWAS?". The Africa Report. Retrieved 10 January 2025.
  73. ↑ "Burkina Faso leader Traore takes over Sahel Alliance presidency". 24 December 2025. Retrieved 24 December 2025.
  74. ↑ Guézodjè, Rodrigue (29 January 2025). "Pourquoi les pays de l'AES restent-ils dans l'UEMOA?". Deutsche Welle (in French). Retrieved 6 February 2025.
  75. 1 2 Ferdjani, Hannane (23 February 2024). "Debate on ditching CFA begins as Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger forge new path". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
  76. ↑ Sanusi, Oluwasegun (23 January 2025). "AES To Establish Regional Investment Bank, Airline and Other Infrastructural Projects". West Africa Weekly. Retrieved 13 February 2025.
  77. ↑ Anne, Souleymane (8 October 2024). "Assessment of the Alliance of Sahel states: over a year of initiatives and challenges". SeneNews. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
  78. ↑ Thioune, Thierno (14 March 2024). "Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger hint at a new west African currency: what it'll take for it to succeed". The Conversation. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
  79. ↑ "Niger bans grain exports to Nigeria, other non-members of ASS". Daily Trust. 18 October 2024. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
  80. ↑ "Niger Enacts Comprehensive Ban on Food Export to countries outside of the Alliance of Sahel States (AES)". Cameroon Concord. 25 October 2024. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
  81. 1 2 Kankabo, Alfrede (19 February 2024). "Sahel: The countries of the AES and its neighbours join forces in their quest for energy autonomy". Sahel Liberty. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
  82. ↑ "Mali champions Sahel energy integration". African Press Agency. 7 May 2025. Retrieved 22 May 2025.
  83. 1 2 "Sahel alliance creates joint bank". African Press Agency. 24 May 2025. Retrieved 25 May 2025.
  84. ↑ "Sahel Alliance Establishes Investment Bank, Key Financing Decisions Pending". Ecofin Agency. Retrieved 18 December 2025.
  85. ↑ Agbetiloye, Adekunle (13 December 2025). "Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger launch $895m regional investment bank". Business Insider Africa. Retrieved 18 December 2025.
  86. ↑ Traoré, Aminata (24 May 2025). "500 Milliards de FCFA pour la Souveraineté Économique : L'Alliance des États du Sahel Lance sa Banque Confédérale". Seneweb (in French). Archived from the original on 26 July 2025. Retrieved 24 May 2025.
  87. ↑ Okebiorun, Olamilekan (22 December 2025). "West African juntas launch 5,000-troop NATO-style force amid foreign intervention fears". Business Insider Africa. Retrieved 26 December 2025.
  88. ↑ "Burkina Faso Mali and Niger Launch Their Own TV Channel - The Zambian Observer". 22 December 2025. Retrieved 23 December 2025.
  89. ↑ "La télévision AES ouvre officiellement ses antennes - Médiatude" (in French). 22 December 2025. Retrieved 23 December 2025.
  90. ↑ "Flysat". Flysat. 23 December 2025. Retrieved 23 December 2025.
  91. ↑ "Les pays de l'AES signent un mémorandum d'entente sur la politique culturelle commune de leur espace". Azertac. Agence Anadolu. 5 February 2025. Retrieved 6 February 2025.
  92. ↑ Ikeh, Goddy (30 May 2025). "Sahel Alliance planning judicial response to transnational challenges". African Press Agency. Retrieved 31 May 2025.
  93. ↑ "Sahel States Launch Regional Court to Tackle Terrorism and Human Rights Abuses". The Arabian Post. 4 June 2025. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
  94. ↑ "Africa: Sahel States Establish Regional Criminal Court to Combat Terrorism and Rights Violations". AllAfrica. 3 June 2025. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
  95. ↑ "Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso announce International Criminal Court withdrawal". France 24. 22 September 2025. Retrieved 23 September 2025.
  96. ↑ "Burundi Welcomes Alliance Of Sahel States' Decision To Withdraw From Rome Statute". Leadership. 20 September 2025. Retrieved 23 September 2025.
  97. ↑ "ICC confirms Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger move to leave court". Reuters. 2 July 2026. Retrieved 7 August 2026.
  98. ↑ Ekanem, Solomon (4 July 2025). "Sahel nations unite under new agricultural seed alliance to strengthen food security". Business Insider. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
  99. ↑ "Sahel Alliance Moves Toward Joint Purchasing Agency for Food Security". Ecofin Agency. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  100. ↑ "Alliance of Sahel States puts on show of unity through inaugural games". Africanews. 30 June 2025. Retrieved 3 July 2025.
  101. ↑ "Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso: l'AES fait un pas vers l'intégration du marché des télécoms". Jeune Afrique (in French). Retrieved 23 November 2024.
  102. ↑ Sourou, Helene (21 November 2024). "Révolution des télécommunications au Sahel: Le roaming gratuit devient une réalité". Journal du niger (in French). Retrieved 23 November 2024.
  103. ↑ "Afrique Téléphonie: le Mali, le Niger et le Burkina lèvent les frais d'itinérance" [Africa Telephony: Mali, Niger and Burkina lift roaming fees]. Voice of America (in French). Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 22 November 2024.
  104. ↑ Macdonald, Ayang (27 January 2025). "Sahel states under military rule unveil common biometric passport Jan. 29". Biometric Update. Retrieved 16 September 2025.
  105. ↑ Enoch, Melissa (16 September 2024). "Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger Juntas To Launch New Biometric Passports Amid Break From ECOWAS". Arise News. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
  106. ↑ "AES: Assimi Goïta annonce la mise en circulation du passeport commun à compter du 29 janvier". Jeune Afrique (in French). 23 January 2025. Retrieved 24 January 2025.
  107. ↑ "Droits de douane, libre échange et franc CFA au Sahel… Cinq questions pour comprendre le rapprochement économique entre les juntes". Jeune Afrique (in French). 8 April 2025. Retrieved 10 April 2025.
  108. ↑ Malga, Amarana (10 May 2025). "L'AES valide son hymne officiel". Anadolu Agency (in French). Retrieved 11 April 2025.
  109. ↑ Ikeh, Goddy (13 May 2025). "Sahel Confederation mooting unified road safety strategy". African Press Agency. Retrieved 22 May 2025.
  110. ↑ "TRT Afrika - Niger sheds French baggage with Hausa as national language". www.trtafrika.com. Retrieved 15 August 2026.
  111. 1 2 3 Cascais, Antonio (14 February 2025). "How Sahel states ditched Western mining interests". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 6 April 2025.
  112. ↑ "Market Observatory - European Commission". euratom-supply.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 15 January 2025.
  113. ↑ "A guide: Uranium in Niger". World Nuclear News. 28 July 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2025.
  114. 1 2 3 Schwikowski, Martina (3 April 2025). "Sahel juntas drive new era in mineral extraction". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 6 April 2025.
  115. ↑ "Burkina Faso: Cotton Output Seen Rising 15% in 2025/2026". Ecofin Agency. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  116. ↑ "Kodal Minerals' Mali lithium mine remains on track for Q1 2025 production". mining.com. 20 December 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2025.
  117. ↑ Malayil, Jijo (26 December 2024). "China to produce 506,000 tons of EV battery power from Mali's lithium mine". Interesting Engineering. Retrieved 11 August 2025.
  118. ↑ "Mali records highest cotton production". Africanews. 20 March 2022. Retrieved 9 November 2024.
  119. 1 2 Agbetiloye, Adekunle (13 June 2025). "Junta-led Burkina Faso nationalises five gold mining assets". Business Insider. Retrieved 11 August 2025.
  120. ↑ Robert Sailo (13 June 2025). "Burkina Faso nationalises gold mining assets, shifting control to state-owned miner". Mining Technology. Retrieved 15 June 2025.
  121. ↑ "Air France loses €65 million after being chased from Sahel – The North Africa Post". Retrieved 6 April 2025.
  122. ↑ "Mali cancels Air France clearance to resume flights". RFI. 11 October 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2025.
  123. ↑ "Mali cancels authorization for Air France to resume service". Africanews. 11 October 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2025.
  124. ↑ Plucinska, Joanna (7 August 2023). "Niger-Air France suspend ses vols vers le Niger, le Mali et le Burkina Faso". L'Usine Nouvelle (in French).
  125. ↑ "GoviEx initiates arbitration in Niger". Nuclear Engineering International. 16 December 2024. Retrieved 6 April 2025.
  126. ↑ McKay, David (19 February 2025). "GoviEx may have route back into Niger uranium project". Miningmx. Retrieved 6 April 2025.
  127. ↑ "Barrick says 'committed to reaching a mutually beneficial resolution' in Mali". Reuters. Archived from the original on 11 March 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2025.
  128. ↑ "Barrick Gold and Mali Reach Settlement, Ending Two Year Mining Dispute". Investing News. Retrieved 6 April 2025.
  129. ↑ "Niger Expels Chinese Oil Executives Over Failure to Meet Local Content Criteria". Mint. 15 March 2025.
  130. ↑ McCartney, Micah (25 March 2025). "As China Expands Global Footprint, It Gets Into More Trouble". Newsweek. Retrieved 11 August 2025.
  131. ↑ Faouzi, Adil (19 March 2025). "Mali Follows Niger, Burkina Faso in Leaving Francophonie Organization". Morocco World News. Retrieved 20 March 2025.
  132. ↑ Maiga, Souleymane Issa; Kouwonou, Isidore (19 March 2025). "Retrait de l'OIF: que perdent les pays de l'AES ?". BBC News (in French). Retrieved 20 March 2025.
  133. ↑ "Mali suspends teaching of French revolution in schools". African Press Agency. 10 October 2025. Retrieved 22 October 2025.
  134. ↑ "Fact Sheet: President Donald J. Trump Further Restricts and Limits the Entry of Foreign Nationals to Protect the Security of the United States". The White House. 16 December 2025. Retrieved 1 January 2026.
  135. ↑ "Mali, Burkina Faso ban American travel in retaliation - UPI.com". UPI. Retrieved 1 January 2026.
  136. ↑ "Alliance of Sahel States condemns United States operation in Venezuela". Africanews. 9 January 2026. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  137. ↑ "Communique de La Confédération AES du 08 Janvier 2026 – SIG – Service d'Information du Gouvernement du Burkina Faso" (in French). Retrieved 11 January 2026.
  138. ↑ "Communiqué de La Conféeration des États du Sahel (AES) Relatif À L'Attaque Armée des États-Unis D'Amérique Contre La République Bolivarienne du Venezuela" (PDF).
  139. ↑ "Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger formally exit ECOWAS". Daijiworld. 30 January 2025. Retrieved 30 January 2025.
  140. ↑ Okerinde, Ayobami (29 January 2025). "Just in: Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali have left, but citizens' privileges remain - ECOWAS". Vanguard. Lagos, Nigeria. Retrieved 30 January 2025.
  141. 1 2 Dossavi, Ayi Renaud (28 May 2024). "Togo Takes Part in Joint Military Exercises with Sahel Alliance and Chad". Togo First. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
  142. ↑ "Military Split with Chad: Paris Loses Its Last Strategic Sahel Ally". Ecofin Agency. 29 November 2024. Retrieved 2 December 2024.
  143. ↑ "Chadian government spokesperson voices support for joining Sahel alliance". African Press Agency. 14 May 2025. Retrieved 21 May 2025.
  144. ↑ Ochieng, Beverly (15 February 2024). "Will the Sahel Military Alliance Further Fragment ECOWAS?". Center for Strategic and International Studies. Retrieved 12 January 2025.
  145. ↑ Okafor, Chinedu (9 December 2024). "Senegal advocates for the ease of tension between the AES and ECOWAS". Business Insider. Retrieved 11 August 2025.
  146. ↑ Glez, Damien (17 January 2025). "L'Alliance des États du Sahel, " the place to be " pour le Togo ?". Jeune Afrique (in French). Retrieved 17 January 2025.
  147. ↑ "Togo Says Could Join AES Sahel Defence Pact". Barron's. Agence France-Presse. 16 January 2025. Retrieved 18 January 2025.
  148. ↑ "Togo: un pas de plus vers une intégration à l'Alliance des États du Sahel ?". Radio France Internationale (in French). 15 March 2025. Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  149. ↑ "La plupart des Togolais trouvent justifié le retrait des pays de l'AES de la CEDEAO". Afrobarometer (in French). 10 March 2025. Retrieved 22 May 2025.
  150. ↑ Edoh, Esaïe (25 July 2024). "Customs: Alliance of Sahel States Want to Strengthen Trade Ties with Togo". Togo First. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
  151. ↑ Kakpo, Fiacre E. (16 March 2024). "Togo: Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso total over 90% of the port of Lomé's transit". Togo First. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
  152. ↑ "West Africa Moves Closer to Free Roaming as More Countries Sign On". Ecofin Agency. 29 April 2025. Retrieved 22 May 2025.
  153. 1 2 3 "John Mahama urges greater support for Sahel countries in combating terrorism". Daily Post. Lagos, Nigeria. 21 December 2024. Retrieved 22 December 2024.
  154. ↑ Adombila, Maxwell Akalaare (21 January 2025). "Ghana president taps retired army officer as envoy to junta-led Sahel states". Reuters. Retrieved 26 January 2025.
  155. ↑ "Mali summons Algeria envoy over 'interference' and 'unfriendly acts'". Middle East Monitor. 21 December 2023. Retrieved 7 April 2025.
  156. ↑ "Sahel alliance recalls ambassadors from Algiers over downed drone". France 24. 7 April 2025. Retrieved 7 April 2025.
  157. ↑ "Tensions between Algeria and Mali, ambassadors summoned". Africanews. 22 December 2023. Retrieved 7 April 2025.
  158. ↑ Prashad, Vijay; Alexandra, Zoe (28 September 2023). "Is this the end of French neo-colonialism in Africa?". The Daily Star. Retrieved 8 February 2025.
  159. ↑ "Iran 'ready to share its expertise' in security with Burkina Faso: Envoy". Middle East Monitor. 11 September 2024. Retrieved 12 August 2025.
  160. ↑ Mcmakin, Wilson (13 May 2025). "The Taliban and Burkina Faso ambassadors pledge new trade and mining cooperation". Associated Press. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 22 May 2025.
  161. ↑ Maillard, Matteo (14 May 2025). "Burkina Faso and Niger extend a hand to the Taliban". The Africa Report. Retrieved 22 May 2025.
  162. ↑ "African states to launch satellites with Russia". Big News Network. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  163. ↑ Zenn, Jacob (15 December 2023). "Brief: Russia Deepens Counter-Terrorism Ties to Sahelian Post-Coup Regimes". Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
  164. ↑ "Russia, Burkina Faso ink nuclear pact". Nuclear Engineering International. 24 June 2025. Retrieved 26 June 2025.
  165. ↑ "Mali and Russia sign agreement on peaceful use of nuclear energy". World Nuclear News. 24 June 2025. Retrieved 26 June 2025.
  166. ↑ Akin, Ezgi (20 July 2025). "Will Turkey's inroads in Sahel spark cooperation with US in Africa?". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 4 February 2025.
  167. ↑ "Turkey, Iran and Morocco joust for influence in Africa's Sahel". France 24. 12 March 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2025.
  168. ↑ "Turkey expands Sahel presence with mercenaries in Niger". bne IntelliNews. 18 December 2024. Retrieved 11 August 2025.
  169. ↑ "Iran, Niger sign joint cooperation agreement". Tehran Times. 30 April 2025. Retrieved 9 May 2025.
  170. ↑ "Mali accuses France of arming Islamist fighters in letter to U.N." Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  171. ↑ "France rejects Mali's accusations that it helped arm Islamist fighters". France 24. 18 August 2022. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  172. ↑ "Mali Accuses France of Supporting Islamist Militants". Voice of America. 18 August 2022. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  173. ↑ "French military interventions in the Sahel". Universiteit Gent. Retrieved 22 January 2026.
  174. ↑ "Niger military accuses France of deploying forces with view to 'intervention'". France 24. 10 September 2023. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  175. ↑ "Niger junta accuses France of deploying troops for possible intervention". Reuters. Archived from the original on 20 September 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  176. ↑ "Mali says France violating its airspace to 'spy' on troops". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  177. ↑ "'Time to move on': France faces gradual decline of influence in Africa". France 24. 2 January 2025. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  178. ↑ "French minister dismisses accusations of interference in Burkina Faso". Africanews. 10 January 2023. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
  179. 1 2 Agbetiloye, Adekunle (15 August 2025). "Mali's ruling junta arrests generals, French national in alleged coup plot". Business Insider Africa. Retrieved 22 January 2026.
  180. ↑ "Mali accuses Ukraine of supporting terrorism in the Sahel". Daily Trust. 25 September 2024. Retrieved 30 May 2025.
  181. ↑ Aka, John (24 April 2025). "Ukraine's shadow 'war' in the Sahel raises alarms in Dakar". Vanguard. Lagos, Nigeria. Retrieved 30 May 2025.
  182. ↑ "Russia's Lavrov accuses Ukraine of destabilising Sahel". Africanews. 3 April 2025. Retrieved 30 May 2025.
  183. ↑ "Niger Cuts Diplomatic Ties with Ukraine Over Alleged Support for Terrorism". Novinite. 7 August 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
  184. ↑ Boechat, Geraldine (4 April 2025). "Mali Accuses one more time Ukraine of Sponsoring Terrorism in Sahel Region". Medafrica Times. Retrieved 8 April 2025.
  185. ↑ "Mali coup plot: French man arrested over spying allegation". www.bbc.com. 15 August 2025. Retrieved 22 January 2026.
  186. ↑ "Suspected French Spy Detained in Mali for Alleged Role in Coup Plot". The Voice of Africa. 15 August 2025. Retrieved 22 January 2026.
  187. ↑ "Mali's ruling junta sentences a French agent to 20 years in prison". 6 June 2026. Retrieved 9 June 2026.
  188. ↑ "Un agent français de la DGSE soupçonné de conspiration et emprisonné au Mali". 1001Infos (in French). 22 August 2025. Retrieved 9 June 2026.
  189. ↑ "Togo extradites ex-Burkina leader after alleged coup plot". The Punch. 20 January 2026. Retrieved 22 January 2026.
  190. ↑ "Togo says it has extradited Burkina Faso's former junta leader". AP News. 20 January 2026. Retrieved 22 January 2026.
  191. ↑ "Burkina confirms Damiba extradition to face multiple crimes trial". African Press Agency. 21 January 2026. Retrieved 22 January 2026.
  192. ↑ "Burkina Faso's Sandaogo Damiba: Ex-president accused of murder plot expelled from Togo". www.bbc.com. 20 January 2026. Retrieved 22 January 2026.
  193. ↑ Moore, Harriot Grinnell (7 October 2025). "INSO Statement on our activities in Burkina Faso and the ongoing detention of our staff". International NGO Safety Organisation (INSO). Retrieved 20 April 2026.
  194. ↑ Enugu, Emeka. "Arrest of French citizen in Burkina Faso deepens suspicions over NGO activities in the Sahel". Modern Ghana. Retrieved 25 January 2026.
  195. ↑ FEYE, Dylan (4 September 2025). "Burkina Faso arrests French NGO director on espionage..." Retrieved 25 January 2026.
  196. ↑ Ibrahim, Fatimah (8 October 2025). "Burkina Faso Dismantles Alleged Espionage Network Linked to International NGO". West African Voice Network. Retrieved 25 January 2026.
  197. ↑ "Un Français détenu au Burkina Faso pour suspicion d'espionnage" (in French). 3 September 2025. Retrieved 25 January 2026.
  198. ↑ "Burkina Faso: un Français soupçonné d'espionnage est détenu par la Sécurité d'Etat depuis plus d'un mois". RFI (in French). 3 September 2025. Retrieved 25 January 2026.
  199. 1 2 3 "Sahel Alliance Unveils New Flag; Moves Toward Greater Integration". PopularResistance.Org. 9 March 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025.
  200. 1 2 "Sahel States Alliance Unveils Official Flag, Strengthening Regional Unity". I Love Africa. 26 February 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025.
  201. ↑ Mwangi, Nicholas (5 March 2025). "Sahel alliance unveils new flag as regional bloc moves toward greater integration : Peoples Dispatch". Peoples Dispatch. Archived from the original on 10 May 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025.
  202. 1 2 Ibrahim, Fatimah (22 February 2025). "AES Unveils Official Flag to Strengthen Regional Integration". West African Voice Network. Retrieved 6 June 2025.
  203. ↑ Clarke, Simone (4 March 2025). "Mali, Niger & Burkina Faso: The Alliance of Sahel States Reshaping Africa & Rejecting Western Influence". MEFeater. Retrieved 6 June 2025.

Further reading

allikas: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_the_Alliance_of_Sahel_States