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Socialism with Chinese characteristics (Chinese: 中国特色社会主义; pinyin: Zhōngguó tèsè shèhuìzhǔyì; Mandarin pronunciation: [ʈʂʊ́ŋ.kwǒ tʰɤ̂.sɤ̂ ʂɤ̂.xwêɪ.ʈʂù.î] ⓘ) is a set of political theories and policies of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) that are seen by their proponents as representing Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances.

The term entered was first established by Deng Xiaoping in 1982 and was largely associated with Deng's overall program of adopting elements of market economics as a means to foster growth using foreign direct investment and to increase productivity (especially in the countryside where 80% of China's population lived) while the CCP retained both its formal commitment to achieve communism and its monopoly on political power.[1] In the party's official narrative, socialism with Chinese characteristics is Marxism adapted to Chinese conditions and a product of scientific socialism. The theory stipulated that China was in the primary stage of socialism due to its relatively low level of material wealth and needed to engage in economic growth before it pursued a more egalitarian form of socialism, which in turn would lead to a communist society described in Marxist orthodoxy.[2]

Socialism with Chinese characteristics consists of a path, a theory, a system and a culture. The path outlines the policies guiding the CCP. The theory consists of Deng Xiaoping Theory, Three Represents (Jiang Zemin), Scientific Outlook on Development (Hu Jintao), and Xi Jinping Thought. According to CCP doctrine, Xi Jinping Thought is considered to represent Marxist–Leninist policies suited for China's present condition while Deng Xiaoping Theory was considered relevant for the period when it was formulated. The system outlines the political system of China.

Development

The term was first used by Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping on 1 September 1982 in the opening speech of the 12th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party.[3] Deng said "We must integrate the universal truth of Marxism with the concrete realities of China, and blaze a path of our own and build a Socialism with Chinese Characteristics".[4]

Content

Officially, the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is "the most essential feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics".[5] According to official explanations, Socialism with Chinese characteristics consists of a "path", a "theory", a "system", and a "culture":[4]

  • The path of socialism with Chinese characteristics (中国特色社会主义道路) establishes that, under the CCP's leadership, China must base it on the basic national conditions, focus on economic development, adhere to the Four Cardinal Principles and to Reform and Opening Up, liberate and develop social productive forces, construct a "socialist market economy, socialist democratic politics, socialist advanced culture, socialist harmonious society and socialist ecological civilization," promote the development of people, gradually realize common prosperity, build a "prosperous, democratic, civilized, harmonious, and beautiful socialist modern country", and achieve the "great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation".[6]
  • The theory of socialism with Chinese characteristics (中国特色社会主义理论体系) is the "scientific theoretical system", consisting of Deng Xiaoping Theory, Three Represents, Scientific Outlook on Development, and Xi Jinping Thought. It is officially described as the inheritance and development of Marxism–Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought. It is officially described as the "latest achievement of the Sinicization of Marxism, the contemporary Chinese Marxism, the Marxism of the 21st century, and the contemporary essence of Chinese culture and Chinese spirit".[6][7]
  • The system of socialism with Chinese characteristics (中国特色社会主义制度) includes the system of people's congresses, the multi-party cooperation and political consultation system under the leadership of the CCP, the system of regional ethnic autonomy, and the grassroots mass autonomy system. It additionally includes the socialist legal system with Chinese characteristics, the socialist market economic system, and various other systems in the economy, politics, culture and society.[6] According to CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping, the leadership of the CCP is the "the greatest strength of the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics".[4]
  • The culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics (中国特色社会主义文化), according to the 19th CCP National Congress, "originates from the excellent traditional Chinese culture nurtured by the Chinese nation's 5,000-year history of civilization, fusing with the revolutionary culture and the advanced socialist culture created by the Party in leading the people in revolution, construction and reform".[8] It officially aims to "cultivate citizens with ideals, morality, culture and discipline, and develop a national, scientific and popular socialist culture that is oriented towards modernization, the world and the future".[6]

Primary stage of socialism

Main article: Primary stage of socialism

During the Mao era

The concept of a primary stage of socialism was conceived before the People's Republic of China introduced economic reforms.[9] In the early 1950s, economists Yu Guangyuan, Xue Muqiao and Sun Yefang raised the question of socialist transformation in which China's economy of low productive force was in a transitional period, a position which Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, endorsed briefly until 1957. When discussing the necessity of commodity relations at the 1st Zhengzhou Conference (2–10 November 1958), for example, Mao said that China was in the "intitial stage of socialism".[9] However, Mao never elaborated on the idea and his successors were left to do this.[9]

After Mao Zedong's death

Some have called our road "Social Capitalism", others "State Capitalism", and yet others "Technocratic Capitalism". These are all completely wrong. We respond that socialism with Chinese characteristics is socialism, by which we mean that despite reform we adhere to the socialist road – our road, our theory, our system, and the goals we set out at the 18th National Party Congress. ... Socialism with Chinese characteristics is the dialectical unity of the theoretical logic of scientific socialism and the historical logic of China's social development. It's scientific socialism rooted in Chinese realities, reflecting the will of Chinese people, and adapted to the requirements of China and its circumstances.

On 5 May 1978, the article "Putting into Effect the Socialist Principle of Distribution According to Work" (贯彻执行按劳分配的社会主义原则) elaborated on the idea that China was still at the first stage of reaching a communist society[11] and that it had not become a truly socialist society.[11] The article was written by members in the State Council's Political Research Office led by economist Yu Guangyuan on the orders of Deng Xiaoping so as to "criticize and repudiate" the beliefs of the communist left.[12] After reading it, Deng himself authored a brief memo saying that it was "well-written, and shows that the nature of distribution by labor is not capitalist, but socialist [...] [and] to implement this principle, many things are to be done, and many institutions to be revived. In all, this is to give incentives for us to do better".[13] The term reappeared at the 6th plenum of the 11th Central Committee on 27 June 1981 in the document "Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of our Party since the Founding of the PRC".[14] Hu Yaobang, the CCP General Secretary, used the term in his report to the 12th National Congress on 1 September 1982.[14] It was not until the "Resolution Concerning the Guiding Principle in Building Socialist Spiritual Civilization" at the 6th plenum of the 12th Central Committee that the term was used in the defense of the economic reforms which were being introduced.[14]

At the 13th National Congress, acting General Secretary Zhao Ziyang on behalf of the 12th Central Committee delivered the report "Advance Along the Road of Socialism with Chinese characteristics".[15] He wrote that China was a socialist society, but that socialism in China was in its primary stage,[15] a Chinese peculiarity which was due to the undeveloped state of the country's productive forces.[15] During this phase of development, Zhao recommended introducing a planned commodity economy on the basis of public ownership.[15] The main failure of the communist right according to Zhao was that they failed to acknowledge that China could reach socialism by bypassing capitalism. The main failure of the communist left was that they held the "utopian position" that China could bypass the primary stage of socialism in which the productive forces are to be modernized.[16]

On 5 October 1987, Yu Guangyuan, a major author of the concept, published an article entitled "Economy in the Initial Stage of Socialism" and speculated that this historical stage will last for two decades and perhaps much longer.[17] This represents, says Ian Wilson, "a severe blight on the expectations raised during the early 70s, when the old eight-grade wage scale was being compressed to only three levels and a more even distributive system was assumed to be an important national goal". On 25 October, Zhao further expounded on the concept of the primary stage of socialism and said that the party line was to follow "One Center, Two Basic Points"—the central focus of the Chinese state was economic development, but that this should occur simultaneously through centralized political control (i.e. the Four Cardinal Principles) and upholding the policy of reform and opening up.[14]

General Secretary Jiang Zemin further elaborated on the concept ten years later, first during a speech to the CCP Central Party School on 29 May 1997 and again in his report to the 15th National Congress on 12 September.[14] According to Jiang, the 3rd plenum of the 11th Central Committee correctly analyzed and formulated a scientifically correct program for the problems facing China and socialism.[14] In Jiang's words, the primary stage of socialism was an "undeveloped stage".[14] The fundamental task of socialism is to develop the productive forces, therefore the main aim during the primary stage should be the further development of the national productive forces.[14] The primary contradiction in Chinese society during the primary stage of socialism is "the growing material and cultural needs of the people and the backwardness of production".[14] This contradiction will remain until China has completed the process of primary stage of socialism—and because of it—economic development should remain the party's main focus during this stage.[14]

Jiang elaborated on three points to develop the primary stage of socialism.[18] The first—to develop a socialist economy with Chinese characteristics—meant developing the economy by emancipating and modernizing the forces of production while developing a market economy.[18] The second—building socialist politics with Chinese characteristics—meant "managing state affairs according to the law", developing socialist democracy under the party and making the "people the masters of the country".[18] The third point—building socialist culture with Chinese characteristics—meant turning Marxism into the guide to train the people so as to give them "high ideals, moral integrity, a good education, and a strong sense of discipline, and developing a national scientific, and popular socialist culture geared to the needs of modernization, of the world, and of the future".[18]

When asked how long the primary stage of socialism would last, Zhao replied "[i]t will be at least 100 years [...] [before] socialist modernization will have been in the main accomplished".[19] The state constitution states that "China will be in the primary stage of socialism for a long time to come".[20] As with Zhao, Jiang believed that it would take at least 100 years to reach a more advanced stage.[14]

Socialist market economy

Main article: Socialist market economy

What is socialism and what is Marxism? We were not quite clear about this in the past. Marxism attaches utmost importance to developing the productive forces. We have said that socialism is the primary stage of communism and that at the advanced stage the principle of from each according to his ability and to each according to his needs will be applied. This calls for highly developed productive forces and an overwhelming abundance of material wealth. Therefore, the fundamental task for the socialist stage is to develop the productive forces. The superiority of the socialist system is demonstrated, in the final analysis, by faster and greater development of those forces than under the capitalist system. As they develop, the people's material and cultural life will constantly improve. One of our shortcomings after the founding of the People's Republic was that we didn't pay enough attention to developing the productive forces. Socialism means eliminating poverty. Pauperism is not socialism, still less communism.

— Deng Xiaoping, speech discussing Marxist theory at a Central Committee plenum, 30 June 1984[21]

Deng Xiaoping, the architect of the Chinese economic reforms, did not believe that the market economy was synonymous with capitalism or that planning was synonymous with socialism.[22] During his southern tour, he said that "planning and market forces are not the essential difference between socialism and capitalism. A planned economy is not the definition of socialism, because there is planning under capitalism; the market economy happens under socialism, too. Planning and market forces are both ways of controlling economic activity".[22]

Ideological justification

In the 1980s, it became evident to Chinese economists that the Marxist theory of the law of value—understood as the expression of the labor theory of value—could not serve as the basis of China's pricing system.[23] They concluded that Marx never intended his theory of law of value to work "as an expression of 'concretized labor time'".[23] Marx's notion of "prices of production" was meaningless to the Soviet-styled planned economies since price formations were according to Marx established by markets.[24] Soviet planners had used the law of value as a basis to rationalize prices in the planned economy.[25] According to Soviet sources, prices were "planned with an eye to the [...] basic requirements of the law of value".[25] However, the primary fault with the Soviet interpretation was that they tried to calibrate prices without a competitive market since according to Marx competitive markets allowed for an equilibrium of profit rates which led to an increase in the prices of production.[26] The rejection of the Soviet interpretation of the law of value led to the acceptance of the idea that China was still in the primary stage of socialism.[25] The basic argument was that conditions envisaged by Marx for reaching the socialist stage of development did not yet exist in China.[25]

Mao said that the imposition of "progressive relations of production" would revolutionize production.[27] His successor's rejection of this view according to A. James Gregor has thwarted the ideological continuity of Maoism—officially Mao Zedong Thought.[27] Classical Marxism had argued that a socialist revolution would only take place in advanced capitalist societies and its success would signal the transition from a capitalist commodity-based economy to a "product economy" in which goods would be distributed for people's need and not for profit.[27] If because of a lack of a coherent explanation in the chance of failure this revolution did not occur, the revolutionaries would be forced to take over the responsibilities of the bourgeoisie.[27] Chinese communists are thus looking for a new Marxist theory of development.[27] CCP theorist Luo Rongqu recognized that the founders of Marxism had never "formulated any systematic theory on the development of the non-Western world" and said that the CCP should "establish their own synthesized theoretical framework to study the problem of modern development".[28] According to A. James Gregor, the implication of this stance is that "Chinese Marxism is currently in a state of profound theoretical discontinuity".[29]

According to academics Xinru Ma and David C. Kang, socialism with Chinese characteristics is restricted to China itself and focuses on China's own ideology and practices.[30]: 181  Ma and Kang write that in its foreign relations with other Global South countries, China does not attempt to export the ideology of Socialism with Chinese characteristics.[30]: 181 

Private ownership

The Chinese government's understanding of private ownership is claimed to be rooted in classical Marxism.[31] According to party theorists, since China adopted state ownership when it was a semi-feudal and semi-colonial country, it is claimed to be in the primary stage of socialism.[31] Because of this, certain policies and system characteristics—such as commodity production for the market, the existence of a private sector and the reliance of the profit motive in enterprise management—were changed.[31] These changes were allowed as long as they improved productivity and modernized the means of production, thus furthering the development of socialism.[31]

The CCP still considers private ownership to be non-socialist.[32] However, according to party theorists, the existence and growth of private ownership does not necessarily undermine socialism or promote capitalism in China.[32] They argue that Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels never proposed the immediate abolishment of private ownership.[32] According to Engels' book Principles of Communism, the proletariat can only abolish private ownership when the necessary conditions have been met.[32] In the phase before the abolishment of private ownership, Engels proposed progressive taxation, high inheritance taxes and compulsory bond purchases to restrict private property, while using the competitive powers of state-owned enterprises to expand the public sector.[32] Marx and Engels proposed similar measures in The Communist Manifesto with regard to advanced countries, but since China was economically undeveloped, party theorists called for flexibility regarding the party's handling of private property.[32] According to party theorist Liu Shuiyuan, the New Economic Policy program initiated by Soviet authorities in the aftermath of the war communism program is a good example of flexibility by socialist authorities.[32]

Party theorist Li Xuai said that private ownership inevitably involved capitalist exploitation.[32] However, Li regards private property and exploitation as necessary in the primary stage of socialism, stating that capitalism in its primary stage uses remnants of the old society to build itself.[32] Sun Liancheng and Lin Huiyong said that Marx and Engels—in their interpretation of The Communist Manifesto—criticized private ownership when it was owned solely by the bourgeoisie, but not individual ownership in which everyone owns the means of production, hence this cannot be exploited by others.[33] Individual ownership is considered consistent with socialism, since Marx wrote that a post-capitalist society would entail the rebuilding of "associated social individual ownership".[34]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ Xiaoping, Deng (1 October 1984). "Building Socialism with a Specifically Chinese Character". People's Daily. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
  2. ^ "Deng Xiaoping: Let part of people get rich first". Shanghai Fengqi. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
  3. ^ Gang, Qian (28 September 2012). ""中国特色社会主义"是个筐" [“Socialism with Chinese characteristics” is a basket]. The New York Times. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  4. ^ a b c "Socialism with Chinese Characteristics". The Center for Strategic Translation. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  5. ^ Guiqing, Xiao (22 June 2016). "党的领导是中国特色社会主义最本质特征--理论-人民网" [The leadership of the Party is the most essential feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics]. cpcnews.cn. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  6. ^ a b c d "张汉晖大使：什么是中国特色社会主义" [Ambassador Zhang Hanhui: What is socialism with Chinese characteristics?]. Chinese Embassy in Russia. 21 May 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  7. ^ Laiming, Zhang (24 November 2021). "形成中国特色社会主义理论体系" [Forming a theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics]. cpcnews.cn. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  8. ^ Xingliang, He (12 August 2023). "中华民族现代文明是什么样的文明" [What kind of civilization is the modern civilization of the Chinese nation?]. People's Daily Forum. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  9. ^ a b c Li 1995, p. 400.
  10. ^ Jinping, Xi (11 April 2022). "Regarding the Construction of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics (2013)". Redsails.org. Archived from the original on 11 April 2022.
  11. ^ a b He 2001, p. 385.
  12. ^ He 2001, pp. 385–386.
  13. ^ "坚持按劳分配原则" [March 28, 1978: Adhere to the principle of distribution according to work]. China Central Television. 16 September 2003. Archived from the original on 5 December 2004. Retrieved 4 March 2018.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k He 2001, p. 386.
  15. ^ a b c d Li 1995, p. 399.
  16. ^ Schram 1989, p. 204.
  17. ^ Yu, Guangyuan (5 October 1987). "Economy in the Initial Stage of Socialism". Zhongguo Shehui Kexue (3).
  18. ^ a b c d He 2001, p. 387.
  19. ^ Vogel 2011, p. 589.
  20. ^ 2nd session of the 9th National People's Congress (14 March 2004). "Constitution of the People's Republic of China". Government of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Deng, Xiaoping (30 June 1984). "Building a Socialism with a specifically Chinese character". People's Daily. Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 13 January 2013.
  22. ^ a b "Market fundamentalism' is unpractical". People's Daily. Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. 3 February 2012. Archived from the original on 22 September 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2013.
  23. ^ a b Gregor 1999, p. 114.
  24. ^ Gregor 1999, pp. 114–116.
  25. ^ a b c d Gregor 1999, p. 116.
  26. ^ Gregor 1999, pp. 115–116.
  27. ^ a b c d e Gregor 1999, p. 117.
  28. ^ Gregor 1999, pp. 117–118.
  29. ^ Gregor 1999, p. 118.
  30. ^ a b Ma, Xinru; Kang, David C. (2024). Beyond Power Transitions: The Lessons of East Asian History and the Future of U.S.-China Relations. Columbia Studies in International Order and Politics. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-55597-5.
  31. ^ a b c d Hsu 1991, p. 11.
  32. ^ a b c d e f g h i Hsu 1991, p. 65.
  33. ^ Hsu 1991, pp. 65–66.
  34. ^ Hsu 1991, p. 66.

Sources

Further reading

Library resources about
Socialism with Chinese characteristics
  • Boer, Roland (2021). Socialism with Chinese Characteristics: A Guide for Foreigners. Springer. ISBN 978-9811616242.
  • Gregor, A. James (2014). Marxism and the Making of China. A Doctrinal History. Palgrave Macmillan.
Allikas: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics
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