Mushika dynasty, also spelled Mushaka, also Eli or Ezhi^[1], was a minor dynastic power that held sway over the region in and around Mount Ezhi (Ezhimala) in present-day northern Kerala, south India.^[1][2]

The country of the Ezhimala, ruled by an ancient chiefly lineage ("the Muvan"), appears in early historic (pre-Pallava) south India.^[3][4] Early Tamil poems contain several references to the exploits of Nannan, the ruler of Ezhimala (fl. c. 180 AD^[5]) who famously defeated the Tagadur Satiyaputra ruler.^[6][7] Nannan was known as a great enemy of the early Chera rulers.^[6] The famous Kottayam Coin Hoard, a massive cache of mostly Julio-Claudian (Roman) coins, was also discovered from the Ezhimala country.^[8]

The Ezhimala polity gradually developed into a monarchical state (known as the "Kolladesham") in the early medieval period^[6][9] and came under the influence of the medieval Chera kingdom.^[10][11] The hereditary title of the Mushika kings in the medieval period was "Ramaghata Mushaka" (Malayalam: "Iramakuta Muvar").^[12][13] Mushika royals seem to have assisted the Chera kings in their struggle against the Chola Empire.^[14][15] Two subsequent Chola inscriptions (c. 1005 AD, Rajaraja I and c. 1018–19, Rajadhiraja) mention "the defeat of the Kolladesham" and "the fall of the Iramakuta Muvar".^[9][15][13] The presence of the Chola soldiery in north Kerala (1020 AD) is confirmed by the Eramam inscription.^[13] The kingdom survived the Chera state, and came to be known as "Kolathunad" (Kannur-Kasaragod area) in the post-Chera period.^[6]

The Mushaka Vamsa Kavya, a dynastic chronicle composed in the 11th century by poet Athula, describes the history of the Mushika lineage.^[16][14] The medieval Mushikas were considered as Kshatriyas of Soma Vamsa.^[15] The dynasty also claimed descent from the legendary Heheya Kshatriyas.^[17] The economies of the early historic Ezhimala polity and the medieval Mushika state were heavily dependent on the Indian Ocean spice trade, particularly in pepper, cardamom, and other spices from the interior hills (rather than on wet rice cultivation or agriculture).^[11]

The term "Mushika" or "Mushaka" [Parvata] is the Sanskrit translation of the ancient Tamil name "Ezhimalai" (the Ezhil Kunram).^[18][19] The name was incorrectly pronounced as "Elimala" (thus "the Mountain of the Rats") also.^[19][17] In ancient Tamil, the term Mushika also referred to the tree called Vaka, which was sacred to the rulers of Ezhimala.^[20]

The Ezhimala hill is described in Mushaka Vamsa Kavya as the "Mushaka Parvata".^[21] The early historic fort of the Mushikas, under the Ettikulam Fort, is currently protected by Department of Archaeology, Kerala.^[22]

The ancient ruling family of the Ezhimala seems to have existed in northern Kerala at least from early historic (pre-Pallava) period.^[23] Ancient Tamil poems describe the polity of Ezhimalai (also "Ezhilmalai") on the northern edge of Tamilakam on its west (Malabar) coast.^[24] The port known as "Naravu" was located in Ezhimalai country (Akam, 97).^[25]

The rulers of Ezhilmalai were the most prominent hill chieftains of ancient Kerala.^[26] The "Muvan" chieftain of the early Tamil poems, described as an adversary of the early Chera rulers, is also identical with the Muvan of Ezhimalai.^[25] The early historic Ezhimala clan had matrimonial alliances with the Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers .^[27] The family was also related to that of the rulers of Kantiramala.^[26]

Mahabharata, the Sanskrit epic poem of ancient India, also mention the Mushika as one of the kingdoms of the deep South of India, and is grouped with the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas.^[28]

There are repeated references to several rulers with the name or title "Nannan" in early Tamil literature.^[5][25][29] These include, among others, the Akananuru and Purananuru poems, the Natrinai, the Pathitruppathu and the Kurunthokai.^[25] Nannan was the ruler of Ezhimalai ("the Ezhil Kunram") in northern Kerala.^[26][30] The Vaka tree is described as the sacred tutelary tree of Nannan.^[30] He was known as a great enemy of the early (pre-Pallava) Chera rulers (western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala).^[25] He is also marked out as the hunter chieftain of the "vetar" descent group ("vetar-ko-man").^[26]

Nannan is described as the ruler of "Pazhi" and "Param" by poet Paranar (Akam, 142 and 152).^[5] He was a companion of the Ay ruler (southern Kerala) Eyinan.^[5] Poems 351 and 396 from the Purananuru characterize Nannan and Ay Eyinan as relatives and as extremely close friends. So intimate was their relationship that Nannan renamed the "Pirampu" hills in his country as "Ay-pirampu".^[31][32]

In the battle of Pazhi, the warriors of Nannan led by certain Njimili (or Minjili) defeated the Tagadur Adigan [Adigaiman] ruler (the Satiyaputra) Neduman Anji.^[7] The Satiyaputra, on behalf of the Chera ruler Perumcheral Irumporai, had invaded Pazhi of Nannan with a large force. The Satiyaputra ruler was slain by Njimili or Minjili in the battle ("who won fame by putting to the sword vast numbers of enemies").^[5][7] Njimili or Minjili also killed Ay ruler Eyinan, also in a fight at Pazhi ("Pazhipparanthalai", Akam, 141, 181, and 396, and Natrinai, 265).^[5]

Nannan [possessing a golden chariot and golden chaplet] was eventually defeated [and killed] by Chera ruler "Kalankaykkanni" Narmudi Cheral (fl. c. 180 AD) at "Kadambin Peruvayil".^[5][7] According to the poem, the Chera ruler, after murdering Nannan, chopped down the sacred vaka tree.^[29]

• In a battle at Kazhumalam, Nannan defeated a chieftain called Pindan (Akam, 152, and Natrinai, 270).^[20] Poet Kudavayur Kirattanar speaks about the defeat of certain Pazhayan by Nannan [and his associates Ettai, Atti, Gangan, Katti and Punthurai] (Akam, 44).

• It is mentioned that the "Kosar" people, associated with Chellur (Perinchellur, modern Taliparamba) attacked Ezhimala country of Nannan, and even cut down the totemistic mango tree.^[20] Nannan defeated the Kosars with help of Chola Ilanchettu Chenni, but Pazhi was sacked by the Cholas (Kurunthokai, 73 and Akam, 375).

Nannan (c. 210 AD), probably the son of the ruler of the same name, is also introduced in the early Tamil poems. He is celebrated in "Malaipadukkadam" by poet Perum Kausika and is also mentioned by Mankudi Marudan in "Maduraikkanchi".^[5] Another ruler of by the name [Nannan] is infamous for killing a young women (apparently for eating a fruit [mango] that came floating down to her in a stream).^[5] Another "Nannan" with the title "Udiyan" is mentioned as the "master of gold filled Pazhi".^[5]

There references to certain "Nannan", the ruler of "Konkanam".^[25] He is described as the Nannan dwelling in "Kanam" and as "Konkanam Kizhan" (the lord of Konkanam), and as the lord of the mountain Konkanam ("Ko Perunkanam") (Akam, 392).^[5]

Nannan is perhaps identical with "Nandana", the ancient ruler of mentioned in the medieval poem Mushaka Vamsa.^[20]

The primary resource base for the Ezhimala polity (in the early historic period) and the Mushika state (medieval) was Indian Ocean spice trade (esp. pepper, cardamom and other spices from the interior hills) rather than agriculture (wet paddy cultivation).^[11] Ezhimala Hill was the first landfall on the Malabar Coast for the sailors in the Arabian Sea. Other famous (medieval) ports in the country included Madayi, Valapattanam and Dharmapattanam (Dharmadam).^[11]

The famous Kottayam Coin Hoard, a massive cache of mostly Julio-Claudian (Roman) coins, was discovered around the year 1847 (1846-50) "on the slope of a hill by the [Arabian] sea" near Kannur (Cannanore).^[8] It is speculated that coins amounted to around 8000 aurei (if approximated).^[8] With few exceptions the coins were all of gold and were not worn by usage (and not deliberately slashed with a chisel).^[8] The composition (coin types and number) of the hoard is not known exactly. According to extant reports, there were at least 9 coins of emperor Augustus, 28 of Tiberius, two of Caligula, and 16 coins of Claudius and 16 coins of Nero (a total of 71 coins, the last 32 in the Travancore Collection).^[8] There were also descriptions of coins of Caracalla (initially misidentified as Antoninus Pius).^[8]

The (medieval) Mushika kings appear to have encouraged a variety of merchant guilds in their kingdom. Famous Indian guilds such as the anjuvannam, the manigramam, the valanchiyar and the nanadeshikal show their presence in the kingdom. The kings are also described as great champions of Hindu religion and temples. Some Mushika rulers are known for their patronage to a famous Buddhist vihara in central Kerala.^[15] Presence of Jewish merchants is also speculated in the ports of Mushika kingdom. A location in Madayi is still known as "the Jew's pond" (the Jutakkulam).^[15]

The port known as "Naravu" was located in Ezhimalai country (Akam, 97).^[25] It is generally identified with Naura, which is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as a port somewhere north of Tyndis and Muziris.^[33][34] Naura is generally identified with present-day Kannur (Cannanore).^[34]

Beyond Calliena there are other market-towns of this region; Semylla, Mandagora, Palaepatmae, Melizigara, Byzantium, Togarum and Aurannoboas. Then here are the islands called Sesecrienae and that of the Aegidii, and that of the Caenitae, opposite the place called Chersonesus (and in these places there are pirates), and after this the White Island. Then come Naura and Tyndis, the first markets of Damirica, and then Muziris and Nelcynda, which are now of leading importance. Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same Kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia.

— The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 53–54

According to both Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Pliny the Elder, Naura was located in the Tamil south India (Limyrike/Limerike or Damirica/Damirike), but outside the influence of the Chera rulers.^[35][36][34]

The term "naravu" means "honey" or "liquor" in early Tamil.^[34]

The sweet, ripe fruits covered with bees satisfy the travelers on the pathways and the town [of Naravu] is rich with resources. The tireless warriors with bow and arrow shiver due to the cool winds from the sea. The chief [of Naravu] is amidst tender women.

— Pathitruppathu 60

A kings' double nature: a guide to singers. His armies love Massacre, he loves war, yet gifts flow from him ceaselessly,

Come, dear singers. Let's go and see him in Naravu, where on trees no ax can fell, fruits ripen, unharmed by swarms of bees, egg-shaped [jackfruit], ready for the weary traveler in fields of steady, unfailing harvests;

where warriors with bows that never tire of arrows shiver but stand austere in the sea winds mixed with the lit cloud and the spray of seafoam.

There he is, in the town of Naravu, tender among tender women

— Pathitruppathu 60

The Ezhimala country can ben located to north of the Chera country.^[20] Nannan is described as the ruler of a land called "Punnadu", and settlements such as Viyalur and [the slopes of] Pazhi, the Ezhil Hill, and Param.^[20] He is also called the lord of "Puzhinadu", and "Tulu Nadu".^[20] There are other references to certain "Nannan", the ruler of "Konkanam" and the "Nannan" seated at Tondai Mandalam (the later in the "Malaipadukkadam").^[25][20] Param was the former base of chieftain Minjili, who died at the battle of Pazhipparanthalai.^[20] The country of Ezhimala was near to the land of the Kosar people and the country of the Kadambu tribe.^[20]

It also mentioned that Nannan fought and died in the battle against Narmudi Cheral at the great harbour or "Perunthurai".^[20] Akananuru describes the country of Nannan as follows.^[20]

[…] in the slopes of Pāḻi in the tall/long Ēḻil mountain of Naṉṉaṉ with a pearl necklace, the chief of Pāram with joy of charity/abundant toddy, who liberally gives/flings elephant bulls [due his] famous liberalism, the chief with a spear who overcame Piṇṭaṉ while breaking [his] opposition on the battlefield, [Piṇṭaṉ] who very much swarmed around showing copious enmity like a colony of small white shrimps that attacks while the good vessels which give the wealth (taṉam) of great harbour (peruntuṟai) with seashore groves at the extension of the sounding water, had been sundered/dispersed […]

Ezhimala Hill was the first point of contact on the Malabar Coast for the navigators of the Arabian Sea. Other renowned (medieval) ports in the region included Madayi, Valapattanam, and Dharmapattanam (Dharmadam).^[11] The presence of Jewish traders is also believed to have existed in the ports of the Mushika kingdom. A site in Madayi is still referred to as 'the Jew's Pond' (the Jutakkulam).^[15]

Medieval "Kolla-desam" (or the "Mushika-rajya") stretched on the banks of Kavvai, Kuppam and Valappattanam rivers.^[37] It came under the influence of the medieval Chera kingdom in the early medieval period.^[37] The reign of Chera ruler Vijayaraga (late 9th century AD) probably witnessed the expansion of Chera influence into the Mushika country.^[38] As one of the major subordinates of the Cheras, the Mushika rulers were required to supply armed contingents for the Cheras (in their battles for the Cholas, against the Rashtrakutas).^[39]

However, the repeated Chola references (early 11th century AD) to several kings in medieval Kerala hints that the sovereign power of the Chera rulers, at this period, was restricted to central Kerala (the country around capital Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur). The medieval Chera authority perhaps remained nominal in northern and southern Kerala compared with the power that local rulers (such as that of the Mushika in the north and Venad in the south) exercised politically and militarily.^[40] However, its is known that the Mushika rulers did provide military contingents for the Cheras (in their battles against the Cholas).^[39]

While other chieftaincies under the Chera rulers had its local militia called "the Hundred", the Mushika ruler maintained his own "Companions of Honour" called "the Thousand" (a privilege which the Chera ruler at Mahodayapuram had reserved for himself). Inscriptions from the neighboring Alupa state refer to this armed militia (of "the ruler of Kolam").^[39]

Mushaka Vamsa Kavya was composed by poet "Atula" in the court of Mushika ruler Srikantha.^[41]

The medieval Mushikas rulers professed to be of the [Kshatriyas of] Hehaya line of Mahismati (the Hehayas being themselves Yadavas).^[42] The first Mushika king, consecrated by Parashurama as the kshatriya king of the country, according to the Mushaka Vamsa Kavya, was son of a widowed queen from Mahismati.^[42] The queen had escaped from the wrath of Parashurama and fled to the divine Ezhimala Mountain.^[17] This king’s [youngest] son, Nandana, succeeded him as the Mushika ruler [of the city of Kolam].^[42]

• The minister of the first Ramaghata Mushika was certain "vaishya" by the title "Maha Navika" (the Great Sailor).^[41]
• Ramaghata Mushika named Jayamani, according to the poem, obtained the aid of a Pandya and regained his throne.^[41] Another Mushika named Virchona killed a Pallava royal and married his daughter.^[41]
• Daughter of Mushika ruler Kunchi Varma was married to the king of Kerala/Chera [named Raghupati Jayaraga]. Isana Varma Ranamani, the son of Kunchi Varma, battled the Kerala king Jayaraga afterwards. Peace between the two clans was established with the help of certain Goda Keralaketu [son of Jayaraga and the Mushika princess]. After this event, Kerala king Jayaraga entered the Mushika country and visited Mushika capital Kola [and Isana Varma then married a Chola princess].^[41] These events are sometimes analyzed in view of the growing Chola-Rashtrakuta rivalry in southern India.^[11]
• Mushika country under king Validhara was attacked by the Ganga forces from the Mountains.^[41]
• Mushika prince Valabha, according to the poem, once marched south to assist the Kerala (the Chera) king in resisting a Chola invasion of the Kerala Country [at the direction of the then ruler, his uncle Ramaghata Jayamani]. This prince, after his coronation, also conquered several islands in the ocean (Laccadives).^[41]

The Vaishnava Garuda [eagle] banner was the flag-sign of the medieval Mushika rulers.^[42]

1. Validhara Vikrama Rama (c. 929 AD) — mentioned in the Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription.^[43]
2. Kantan Karivarman alias "Ramakuta Muvar" (c. 1020 AD) ^[43] — mentioned in an Eramam inscription of Chera Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (10th/11th century AD).^[43]
3. "Mushikesvara" Jayamani (c. 1020 AD) — Tiruvadur inscription.^[44]
4. "Ramakuta Muvar" (as a donor to the Tiruvalla temple in Tiruvalla Copper Plates/Huzur Treasury Plates).^[45]
5. Udaya Varma alias "Ramakuta Muvar " (early 12th century AD) — mentioned in the Kannapuram inscription.^[46]

Corrections by M. G. S. Narayanan on K. A. Nilakanta Sastri and Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai are employed.

• In 1005 AD, i. e., 20 regnal year of emperor Rajaraja I (985–1014 AD), there is a reference (in the Senur inscription) to the defeat of the "haughty" kings at Kollam, Kolladesam and Kodungallur at the hand of Rajaraja.^[47] The "Kolladesam" is identified with the Mushika kingdom in north Kerala. According to scholars, "plunder is emphasised more than conquest [in the inscription] and it is likely that the victories at Kollam in the south, Kodungallur in the center and Kolladesam in the north of Kerala have been primarily the achievement of [the Chola] naval forces".^[47]

• Chola emperor Rajadhiraja (1019–1044–1053/4 AD) is stated to have "confined the undaunted king of Venad [back] to Che[ra]natu, destroyed the Iramakuta Muvar in anger, and put on a fresh garland of Vanchi flowers after capturing Kantalur Salai [Vizhinjam?] while the strong Villavan [the Chera king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle".^[48] The Ramakuta Muvar is not named in the above Chola prasasti (the above events are dated to around 1018–19 AD).^[48]
• The presence of Chola army in north Kerala (1020 AD) is confirmed by the Eramam inscription of Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (10th/11th century AD) (which mentions a meeting attended by Rajendra Chola Samaya Senapati in the Chalappuram Temple).^[48]

The Ramanthali/Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription (1075 AD) notably mentions Alupa king Kunda Alupa.^[49]

An inscription discovered from Kannappuram Temple, found fixed on a platform outside the prakara of the temple, in old Malayalam mentions king "Udaya Varma Ramakuta Muvar".^[46] The record give details of land set apart for the expenses of the Kannapuram Temple. The inscription can be attributed to the early years of the 12th century on the basis of script and language.^[46]

King Udaya Varma of Karippattu palace in Kolattunadu is described as a favourite of the medieval Chera king in traditional Kerala chronicles. He is described as the overlord of the Fort Valapattanam, the medieval Chera king's Palace, the Taliparamba Temple, and the Perinchellur Brahmin village.^[59]

• A Sreedhara Menon (2007). A Survey Of Kerala History. DC Books. ISBN 978-81-264-1578-6.
• R. Leela Devi (1986). History of Kerala. Vidyarthi Mithram.
• T. Madhava Menon (2000). A handbook of Kerala. Vol. 1. International School of Dravidian Linguistics. ISBN 978-81-85692-27-2.
• T. Madhava Menon (2002). A handbook of Kerala. Vol. 2. International School of Dravidian Linguistics. ISBN 978-81-85692-31-9.