Mining and mineral processing in Sardinia have a long and complex history, beginning in prehistoric times. The island's abundant underground resources have attracted various civilizations, including the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, and later European powers. Sardinia has been particularly known for its deposits of silver, lead, copper, zinc, and coal, which have shaped its economic and social development across millennia. In recent decades, efforts have been made to preserve this industrial heritage through projects such as the Geomineral Park of Sardinia, supported by UNESCO.

Mining activities in Sardinia commenced around the 6th millennium BCE with the extraction of obsidian from the slopes of Monte Arci, located in the central-western part of the island. Monte Arci emerged as a significant center for obsidian procurement and distribution in the western Mediterranean. Archaeological surveys have identified extensive areas of worked terrain and numerous settlements associated with this activity. Sardinian obsidian was widely traded, reaching regions such as southern France and northern Italy.^[1]

By approximately 3000 BCE, metalworking techniques—likely introduced through interactions with other Mediterranean cultures—were adopted in Sardinia. The island is among the earliest known locations in Europe to engage in silver extraction, with evidence dating to the early Chalcolithic period. This early metallurgy is notable given Sardinia's rich mineral resources.^[2]

During this period, the Ozieri culture (c. 3200–2700 BCE) flourished, marking a significant phase in Sardinian prehistory. The Ozieri people constructed elaborate hypogeum tombs known as Domus de Janas, which have yielded metal artifacts indicative of advanced metallurgical practices. The subsequent Filigosa (c. 3000–2400 BCE) and Abealzu (c. 2600–2200 BCE) cultures continued this metallurgical tradition, with evidence of metal tools and weapons becoming more prevalent.^[2]

The transition to the Monte Claro culture (c. 2900–2100 BCE) saw further advancements in metalworking, including the production of arsenical copper artifacts. This period also witnessed the development of more complex societal structures, possibly influenced by the control and distribution of metal resources. The presence of metal hoards and the construction of fortified settlements suggest an increased valuation of metal objects and a corresponding need for protection and control over these valuable resources.^[2]

These early mining and metallurgical activities laid the foundation for Sardinia's later prominence during the Bronze Age, characterized by the distinctive Nuragic civilization and its monumental stone structures known as Nuraghi.

Between the 10th and 8th centuries BCE, Sardinia’s mineral wealth attracted Phoenician merchants, who were later succeeded by the Carthaginians. These groups extensively exploited mining resources, particularly in the Iglesiente region, where archaeological traces of excavation and smelting have been identified. The Sarrabus area also shows evidence of significant metallurgical activity, including the extraction of iron oxides, sulfides, copper, and lead.

In 238 BCE, following the First Punic War and subsequent unrest involving mercenaries on the island, Carthage formally ceded Sardinia to the Roman Republic. The island became a Roman province in 226 BCE, initiating a period of intensified exploitation of its mineral resources.

Under Roman rule, mining activity expanded significantly, particularly in the extraction of lead and silver. Since 269 BCE, silver had played a central role in the Roman monetary system, while lead was widely used for various applications, including domestic utensils and water infrastructure. Sardinia became one of the Roman Empire's leading mining regions, ranked third in metal production after Hispania and Britannia. It is estimated that, during the Roman period, Sardinia produced approximately 600,000 tonnes of lead and 1,000 tonnes of silver.

Roman mining operations were not limited to the Iglesiente region (site of the ancient mining center of Metalla), but also extended to areas such as Sarrabus, where ore bodies containing silver, iron, copper, and lead were exploited. The Roman geographer Solinus referenced Sardinia’s prominence in silver production, writing: *"India ebore, argento Sardinia, Attica melle"* (“India for ivory, Sardinia for silver, and Attica for honey”).

Mining techniques during this period included the use of deep shafts and excavation galleries, some exceeding 100 metres in depth. Extraction was primarily conducted with hand tools, and fire-setting was occasionally employed to fracture rock. Initially, mining labor consisted of free workers known as *metallari*. From the second century CE onward, however, an increasing proportion of the workforce consisted of enslaved individuals and convicts (*damnati ad effodienda metalla*) sentenced to forced labor in the mines.

In 369 CE, Emperor Valentinian II imposed a tax of five *solidi* on every ship transporting *metallarii* to Sardinia. Subsequent imperial edicts issued by Gratian, Valens, and Valentinian II restricted the movement of these miners to the island. These measures were motivated by concerns that Sardinia’s rich silver deposits could compete with imperial mines in Hispania.

By the late Roman period, mining activity declined substantially, driven by both reduced demand and logistical challenges. Many mines were abandoned, particularly in regions such as Sarrabus, where operations ceased for several centuries.

Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Sardinia's political and economic development diverged from that of the Italian mainland. After a brief period of Vandal occupation, the island came under the control of the Byzantine Empire.

During Byzantine rule, mining and metallurgical activities experienced a partial revival. Silver once again became an important export commodity. However, from the 7th century onward, maritime trade across the Mediterranean Sea became increasingly hazardous due to raids by Arab forces.

The repeated incursions and coastal raids led to the depopulation of coastal areas, prompting a demographic shift toward the island’s interior. Increasingly isolated from Constantinople, Sardinia began to develop political and administrative autonomy.

By the early 9th century, four autonomous political entities known as the Giudicati—Cagliari, Arborea, Torres, and Gallura—emerged. Each was governed by a local ruler known as a *giudice* ("judge"). Documentation from this period regarding mining activities is limited; however, available evidence suggests that mining continued to play an economic role.

In 1131, Judge Gonario II of Torres donated half of the Argentiera (a known mining area in the Nurra) to the Church of Santa Maria of Pisa, reflecting growing political and economic ties between Sardinian rulers and the maritime republics of central Italy.

During the late 11th and 12th centuries, the maritime republics of Genoa and Pisa vied for influence over Sardinia, initially collaborating against Muslim forces before turning to direct competition. The conflict ultimately resulted in Pisan dominance across most of the island, particularly in mining regions.

Under Pisan control, mining activities were extensively documented. The noble Pisan family of the Counts of Donoratico, represented by Ugolino della Gherardesca, played a central role in revitalizing the sector. Ugolino administered approximately 590 square kilometers (230 sq mi) of territory known as the *Argentaria del Sigerro*, rich in silver deposits. He encouraged migration to the region and introduced Tuscan miners and technicians, particularly in support of the development of the town of Villa di Chiesa (modern-day Iglesias).

Mining operations during this period included the reopening of Roman-era shafts and the establishment of new ones. The legal framework governing the industry was codified in the *Breve di Villa Chiesa*, a four-book legal code that included detailed regulations for mining operations and prospecting. Penalties for offenses such as theft of silver ore or illegal smelting were severe and could include capital punishment.

Mining enterprises often operated as cooperatives or partnerships. Shareholders, known as *parsonavili*, held units of ownership (*trente*), and some investors (*bistanti*) contributed only financially. Mining techniques included hand tools such as picks and wedges, and fire-setting was occasionally employed to fracture hard rock. Operations typically ran from Monday noon to Saturday noon, with miners working 12-hour shifts and remaining on site during the workweek. Mining ceased during the summer months due to the prevalence of malaria in coastal regions.

During the late 12th and early 14th centuries, Sardinian mines supplied the Republic of Pisa with an estimated 15 tonnes of silver annually. At its height, the mining settlement at Villa di Chiesa employed approximately 6,500 workers.

In 1326, Pisa lost control of Sardinia to the Crown of Aragon, marking the beginning of a prolonged decline in the island’s mining output. The Aragonese monarchy assumed direct control over mining rights to prevent disputes among nobles. Although tax reductions were introduced to stimulate activity, mining under Aragonese rule never regained the productivity achieved during the Pisan period.

After the decline of Pisan control, Sardinia fell under the influence of the Crown of Aragon. This period saw continued but diminished mining activities as the Aragonese authorities managed mining rights directly to prevent internal conflicts among the nobility.

In 1720, following the terms of the Treaty of The Hague (1720), control of Sardinia passed to the House of Savoy, whose rulers adopted the title of Kings of Sardinia. Under Savoyard administration, efforts were made to revive the island's mining industry, primarily through the assignment of general concessions for mineral exploration and exploitation.

The first such concession was granted to Pietro Nieddu and Stefano Durante. In 1740, a thirty-year general concession was awarded to a consortium that included the British merchant Charles Brander, Baron Karl von Holtzendorf, and Karl Gustav Mandel, the Swedish consul in Cagliari. According to the terms of the agreement, concessionaires were obligated to pay the royal treasury a variable royalty: 12% of the extracted galena and 2% of the silver during the first four years, increasing to 5% over the following six years and 10% for the remaining term. Payments were due at the time of export, or within six months for goods sold domestically.

Mandel introduced several technological innovations to the mining process, including the use of explosives. Skilled workers were brought in, particularly from Germany, and a large lead foundry was constructed near Villacidro. However, the Savoyard authorities accused Mandel of focusing exclusively on existing mines rather than exploring new ones. Allegations of tax irregularities led to the revocation of his concession in 1758.

In 1762, management of Sardinian mining was transferred to Pietro De Belly, Director of the Mining District. De Belly advocated for state-managed mining, arguing that direct control would maximize state revenue. He attempted to reintroduce forced labor in the mines, a policy that drew later criticism, including from Quintino Sella in 1771.

One of the notable missed opportunities under De Belly’s administration was the continued neglect of the silver-bearing vein in Sarrabus, which Mandel had earlier identified as promising. De Belly judged the area too difficult to access and insufficiently profitable due to its rugged terrain and poor transportation infrastructure. The full potential of the region would not be realized until the following century.

Despite administrative challenges, the final decades of the 18th century were marked by the discovery of new mineral resources, including iron near Arzana and antimony near Ballao. By the early 19th century, Sardinia hosted 59 active mines, extracting primarily lead, iron, copper, and silver.

Several private ventures were launched during this period, including one led by French novelist Honoré de Balzac, who in 1838 attempted—unsuccessfully—to reprocess ancient lead-rich tailings in the Nurra region.

In 1840, a new mining law was enacted, formally separating surface land ownership from underground mineral rights. Under the new law, any individual could apply for a mining permit, provided they secured written permission from the landowner. If the landowner's refusal was deemed unjustified, local authorities could override the objection. Permit holders were required to pay a 3% royalty to the treasury and compensate landowners for any damages incurred during operations.

This law became fully enforceable in Sardinia only after the 1848 Perfect Fusion, which unified the legal systems of Sardinia and the mainland territories under Savoyard rule. The reform facilitated the growth of mining companies, many of which were backed by capital from Liguria, Piedmont, and other parts of the kingdom.

Among the most prominent Sardinian entrepreneurs of the period was Giovanni Antonio Sanna, who in 1848 secured a perpetual concession covering approximately 1,200 hectares in the Montevecchio area. There, he developed one of Italy’s most important mining operations.

Attempts to establish monopolies were limited by the new legal framework. For example, the "Società Nazionale per la coltivazione di miniere in Sardegna" (National Society for the Cultivation of Mines in Sardinia), based in Genoa, failed in its bid to obtain a general concession. Instead, its founders created multiple companies to secure as many individual permits as possible. Although most of the mining capital in Sardinia was external, Sanna's investment represented a notable exception.

Not all of the newly formed companies succeeded. Some went bankrupt, while others merged to form larger and more stable enterprises. In 1858, the exiled entrepreneur Enrico Serpieri established lead smelting facilities in Domusnovas and later in Fluminimaggiore, primarily to process previously discarded mining waste. By 1862, Serpieri’s foundries accounted for 56% of Sardinia’s lead production from reclaimed material.

From 1850 onward, small groups of skilled workers from Styria and Freiburg im Breisgau began working in the mines of Montevecchio, Guspini, and Ingurtosu. Their influence remains visible in certain architectural and toponymic features in the region.^{[3][citation not found]} A larger and more permanent migration involved miners from mainland Italy, particularly from Lombardy, Piedmont, Tuscany, and Romagna.^[4]

According to an 1882 survey conducted by French engineer Léon Goüin, 9,780 miners were employed in southwestern Sardinia, of whom 3,571 originated from mainland Italy.^[5] Many settled in the town of Iglesias and its surrounding *frazioni*.

Following the new mining law of 1840 and the subsequent 1848 Perfect Fusion, private mining companies began to grow. The reform allowed for a clear separation between surface and mineral rights, prompting both local and external capital to fuel expansion in mining operations.

Following the unification of Italy in 1861, Sardinia experienced a period of significant industrial expansion, particularly in the mining sector. In addition to existing deposits of lead and silver, a third key resource—zinc—gained importance after the discovery of "calamine" (zinc silicates) in 1865 at the Malfidano mine in Buggerru.

The introduction of dynamite in 1868, shortly after its invention by Alfred Nobel, further revolutionized mining techniques. The new explosive enabled more efficient excavation, especially in humid or hard-rock environments, significantly lowering operational costs.

Despite industrial progress, economic hardship persisted across Sardinia. In 1867, Sardinian representatives petitioned Prime Minister Bettino Ricasoli to increase state investment in the island to address widespread poverty. In April 1868, public unrest erupted in Nuoro, where demonstrators opposed the privatization of public lands, shouting the slogan *su connottu* ("the known/customary law"). In response, a parliamentary commission of inquiry was established under the leadership of Quintino Sella to assess conditions on the island, including the mining sector.

During an 18-day tour, Sella and mining district director Eugenio Marchese visited key mines and metallurgical facilities. The commission’s report emphasized the increasing strategic importance of Sardinia's mining industry. Between 1860 and 1869, employment in Sardinian mines nearly tripled, growing from approximately 3,100 to over 9,100 workers. The number of research permits rose from 83 in 1861 to 420 in 1870, while concessions increased from 16 to 32.

Mineral output also expanded rapidly. From 9.3 million kilograms extracted in 1860, production soared to nearly 128 million kilograms by 1868. The total value of mined materials reached £13,464,780 in the 1868–1869 fiscal year, a fivefold increase compared to a decade earlier.

To improve transport infrastructure between mining sites and ports, companies constructed roughly 30 kilometers of railway and over 1,000 kilometers of roads by 1870. The report also noted a lack of adequate telegraph infrastructure. Although companies were willing to build telegraph lines at their own expense, government monopolies hindered such initiatives.

In 1872, the headquarters of the Sardinian Mining District was relocated from Cagliari to Iglesias, reflecting the growing importance of southwestern Sardinia in the national mining landscape.

A year earlier, in 1871, the discovery of the silver-bearing vein at Monte Narba in Sarrabus marked the beginning of a new production cycle. For the first time, Italy began producing silver-rich ore on an industrial scale. In the subsequent decades, particularly between 1880 and 1890, Sardinia experienced what geologist G.B. Rolandi termed the "silver decade." During this period, silver production reached an average of 2,000 tonnes per year, with a total value exceeding two million lire.

The initial discovery led to the establishment of three mines by 1871, expanding to ten within two decades before consolidating into a single operation. The silver boom in Sarrabus drew both large companies—such as the Society of Lanusei and the Monteponi Company—and numerous small-scale prospectors. Hundreds of research permits were requested for territories surrounding Muravera, Villaputzu, and especially San Vito.

In 1851, the Genoese firm "Unione Sulcis e Sarrabus" acquired exploration rights in the Monte Narba area. Later, in 1885, French engineer Léon Goüin established the "Società Tacconis-Sarrabus" in Genoa to develop the Tacconis mine, followed by the foundation of the "Société des mines de Rio Ollastu" in Paris in 1888.

At its peak, the Sarrabus mining district employed up to 1,500 workers, distributed among sites such as Masaloni, Giovanni Bonu, Monte Narba, Per'Arba, Baccu Arrodas, Tuviois, S'erra e S'Ilixi, and Nicola Secci. The silver content of local ore was remarkably high: whereas the global average silver yield was 200–300 grams per 100 kilograms of lead, Sarrabus mines achieved an average of 1 kilogram per 100 kilograms, with even higher values recorded at Baccu Arrodas.

In the 1930s, the Fascist government of Italy initiated policies aimed at developing Sardinia’s mining sector, particularly in support of national self-sufficiency and industrialization. These efforts included the founding of planned mining towns such as Carbonia and Cortoghiana in the Sulcis–Iglesiente region.

To populate these new urban centers, the regime promoted internal migration from other parts of Italy. Settlers primarily arrived from Veneto, as well as from Marche, Abruzzo, and Sicily. These communities provided the labor force for expanded coal mining operations intended to supply the island’s coal-fired power plants.^[6]

While coal became the primary resource extracted during this period, the overall structure of Sardinia’s mining economy remained reliant on external capital and management. Processing facilities were often located on the Italian mainland, resulting in the outflow of economic value from the island. Despite state-driven expansion, by the mid-20th century, the Sardinian mining industry began a gradual decline due to resource depletion, shifting economic priorities, and competition from imported materials.

By the late 20th century, much of Sardinia’s mining infrastructure had been decommissioned. In response to the economic and cultural significance of the island’s mining heritage, the Geomineral Park of Sardinia (Parco Geominerario Storico e Ambientale della Sardegna) was established in 1989. The park, which is supported by UNESCO, aims to preserve former mining sites, machinery, settlements, and documents as part of the region’s industrial archaeology.^[7]

Today, the park encompasses numerous former mining districts, including the areas of Iglesiente, Sulcis, Sarrabus-Gerrei, Nurra, and others. Several former mining structures have been converted into museums and cultural centers, such as the Museum of the Coal in Carbonia and the restored mining village of Argentiera.

The Geomineral Park serves not only as a vehicle for historical preservation but also as a platform for sustainable tourism and environmental education. It represents a shift in Sardinia’s relationship to its mining past—from economic exploitation to heritage conservation.

• Atti della commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sulla condizione degli operai delle miniere in Sardegna. Rome: Tipografia della Camera dei deputati. 1911.
• Cauli, B. (1996). Dall'ossidiana all'oro: sintesi di storia mineraria sarda. Oristano.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Frongia, G. (1911). Igiene e miniere in Sardegna. Rome.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Manconi, F. (1986). Le miniere e i minatori della Sardegna. Milano.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Marchese, E. (1869). La legge sulle miniere in Sardegna. Considerazioni. Genova.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Marchese, E. (1893). Quintino Sella in Sardegna. Ricordi dell'ingegner Eugenio Marchese. Torino.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Mezzolani, S.; Simoncini, A. (1989). La miniera d'argento di Monte Narba, storia e ricordi. Cagliari.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Mezzolani, S.; Simoncini, A. (1993). Paesaggi ed architetture delle miniere in Sardegna da salvare, volume XIII. Sassari.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Mezzolani, S.; Simoncini, A. (1994). Storie di miniera. Cagliari: Unione sarda.
• Sella, Q. (1871). Relazione alla Commissione Parlamentare d'Inchiesta sulle condizioni dell'industria mineraria in Sardegna. Firenze.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Sotgiu, G. (1986). Storia della Sardegna dopo l'unità. Bari.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)